Evaluation of Alginate Hydrogel Microstrands for Stromal Cell Encapsulation and Maintenance.

Mesenchymal stromal cells (MSCs) have displayed potential in regenerating organ function due to their anti-fibrotic, anti-inflammatory, and regenerative properties. However, there is a need for delivery systems to enhance MSC retention while maintaining their anti-fibrotic characteristics. This study investigates the feasibility of using alginate hydrogel microstrands as a cell delivery vehicle to maintain MSC viability and phenotype. To accommodate cell implantation needs, we invented a Syringe-in-Syringe approach to reproducibly fabricate microstrands in small numbers with a diameter of around 200 µm and a porous structure, which would allow for transporting nutrients to cells by diffusion. Using murine NIH 3T3 fibroblasts and primary embryonic 16 (E16) salivary mesenchyme cells as primary stromal cell models, we assessed cell viability, growth, and expression of mesenchymal and fibrotic markers in microstrands. Cell viability remained higher than 90% for both cell types. To determine cell number within the microstrands prior to in vivo implantation, we have further optimized the alamarBlue assay to measure viable cell growth in microstrands. We have shown the effect of initial cell seeding density and culture period on cell viability and growth to accommodate future stromal cell delivery and implantation. Additionally, we confirmed homeostatic phenotype maintenance for E16 mesenchyme cells in microstrands.

Senescence and fibrosis in salivary gland aging and disease.

Salivary gland hypofunction is highly prevalent in aged and diseased individuals leading to significant discomfort and morbidity. One factor that contributes to salivary gland hypofunction is cellular aging, or senescence. Senescent cells can impair gland function by secreting paracrine-acting growth factors and cytokines, known as senescence-associated secretory phenotype (SASP) factors. These SASP factors stimulate inflammation, propagate the senescent phenotype through the bystander effect, and stimulate fibrosis. As senotherapeutics that target senescent cells have shown effectiveness in limiting disease manifestations in other conditions, there is interest in the use of these drugs to treat salivary gland hypofunction. In this review, we highlight the contribution of senescence and fibrosis to salivary gland pathologies. We also discuss therapeutic approaches to eliminate or modulate the senescent SASP phenotype for treating age-related salivary gland diseases and extending health span.

Single-cell Transcriptomic Analysis of Salivary Gland Endothelial Cells.

Vascular endothelial cells have important functions in fibrosis via direct and indirect methods and in regeneration through secretion of tissue-specific, paracrineacting angiocrine factors. In the salivary gland, endothelial cells are required for proper development, but their roles within adult glands are largely unknown. The goal of this work was to identify ligand-receptor interactions between endothelial cells and other cell types that are important during homeostasis, fibrosis, and regeneration. To model salivary gland fibrosis and regeneration, we utilized a reversible ductal ligation. To induce injury, a clip was applied to the primary ducts for 14 days, and to induce a regenerative response, the clip was subsequently removed for 5 days. To identify endothelial cell-produced factors, we used single-cell RNA-sequencing of stromal-enriched cells from adult submandibular and sublingual salivary glands. Transcriptional profiles of homeostatic salivary gland endothelial cells were compared to endothelial cells of other organs. Salivary gland endothelial cells were found to express unique genes and displayed the highest overlap in gene expression with other fenestrated endothelial cells from the colon, small intestine, and kidney. Comparison of the 14-day ligated, mock ligated, and 5-day deligated stromal-enriched transcripts and lineage tracing were used to identify evidence for a partial endoMT phenotype, which was observed in a small number of endothelial cell subsets with ligation. CellChat was used to predict changes in ligand-receptor interactions in response to ligation and deligation. CellChat predicted that after ligation, endothelial cells are sources of protein tyrosine phosphatase receptor type m, tumor necrosis factor ligand superfamily member 13, and myelin protein zero signaling and targets for tumor necrosis factor signaling. Following deligation, CellChat predicted that endothelial cells are sources of chemokine (C-X-C motif) and EPH signaling to promote regenerative responses. These studies will inform future endothelial cell-based regenerative therapies.

Identifying fibrogenic cells following salivary gland obstructive injury.

Fibrosis results from excess extracellular matrix accumulation, which alters normal tissue architecture and impedes function. In the salivary gland, fibrosis can be induced by irradiation treatment for cancer therapy, Sjögren's Disease, and other causes; however, it is unclear which stromal cells and signals participate in injury responses and disease progression. As hedgehog signaling has been implicated in fibrosis of the salivary gland and other organs, we examined contributions of the hedgehog effector, Gli1, to fibrotic responses in salivary glands. To experimentally induce a fibrotic response in female murine submandibular salivary glands, we performed ductal ligation surgery. We detected a progressive fibrotic response where both extracellular matrix accumulation and actively remodeled collagen significantly increased at 14 days post-ligation. Macrophages, which participate in extracellular matrix remodeling, and Gli1+ and PDGFRα+ stromal cells, which may deposit extracellular matrix, both increased with injury. Using single-cell RNA-sequencing, Gli1 + cells were not found in discrete clusters at embryonic day 16 but were found in clusters expressing the stromal genes Pdgfra and/or Pdgfrb. In adult mice, Gli1+ cells were similarly heterogeneous but more cells co-expressed PDGFRα and PDGFRß. Using Gli1-CreERT2; ROSA26tdTomato lineage-tracing mice, we found that Gli1-derived cells expand with ductal ligation injury. Although some of the Gli1 lineage-traced tdTomato+ cells expressed vimentin and PDGFRß following injury, there was no increase in the classic myofibroblast marker, smooth muscle alpha-actin. Additionally, there was little change in extracellular matrix area, remodeled collagen area, PDGFRα, PDGFRß, endothelial cells, neurons, or macrophages in Gli1 null salivary glands following injury when compared with controls, suggesting that Gli1 signaling and Gli1+ cells have only a minor contribution to mechanical injury-induced fibrotic changes in the salivary gland. We used scRNA-seq to examine cell populations that expand with ligation and/or showed increased expression of matrisome genes. Some Pdgfra + /Pdgfrb + stromal cell subpopulations expanded in response to ligation, with two stromal cell subpopulations showing increased expression of Col1a1 and a greater diversity of matrisome genes, consistent with these cells being fibrogenic. However, only a few cells in these subpopulations expressed Gli1, consistent with a minor contribution of these cells to extracellular matrix production. Defining the signaling pathways driving fibrotic responses in stromal cell sub-types could reveal future therapeutic targets.

Identifying Fibrogenic Cells Following Salivary Gland Obstructive Injury.

Fibrosis results from excess extracellular matrix accumulation, which alters normal tissue architecture and impedes function. In the salivary gland, fibrosis can be induced by irradiation treatment for cancer therapy, Sjögren's Disease, and other causes; however, it is unclear which stromal cells and signals participate in injury responses and disease progression. As hedgehog signaling has been implicated in fibrosis of the salivary gland and other organs, we examined contributions of the hedgehog effector, Gli1, to fibrotic responses in salivary glands. To experimentally induce a fibrotic response in female murine submandibular salivary glands, we performed ductal ligation surgery. We detected a progressive fibrotic response where both extracellular matrix accumulation and actively remodeled collagen trended upwards at 7 days and significantly increased at 14 days post- ligation. Macrophages, which participate in extracellular matrix remodeling, Gli1 + and PDGFRα + stromal cells, which may deposit extracellular matrix, both increased with injury. Using single-cell RNA-sequencing, we found that a majority of Gli1 + cells at embryonic day 16 also express Pdgfra and/or Pdgfrb. However, in adult mice, only a small subset of Gli1 + cells express PDGFRα and/or PDGFRß at the protein level. Using lineage-tracing mice, we found that Gli1-derived cells expand with ductal ligation injury. Although some of the Gli1 lineage-traced tdTomato + cells expressed vimentin and PDGFRß following injury, there was no increase in the classic myofibroblast marker, smooth muscle alpha-actin. Additionally, there was little change in extracellular matrix area, remodeled collagen area, PDGFRα, PDGFRß, endothelial cells, neurons, or macrophages in Gli1 null salivary glands following injury when compared with controls, suggesting that Gli1 signaling and Gli1 + cells have only a minor contribution to mechanical injury-induced fibrotic changes in the salivary gland. We used scRNA-seq to examine cell populations that expand with ligation and/or showed increased expression of matrisome genes. Pdgfra + /Pdgfrb + stromal cell subpopulations both expanded in response to ligation, showed increased expression and a greater diversity of matrisome genes expressed, consistent with these cells being fibrogenic. Defining the signaling pathways driving fibrotic responses in stromal cell sub-types could reveal future therapeutic targets.

Raman microspectroscopy fingerprinting of organoid differentiation state.

BACKGROUND: Organoids, which are organs grown in a dish from stem or progenitor cells, model the structure and function of organs and can be used to define molecular events during organ formation, model human disease, assess drug responses, and perform grafting in vivo for regenerative medicine approaches. For therapeutic applications, there is a need for nondestructive methods to identify the differentiation state of unlabeled organoids in response to treatment with growth factors or pharmacologicals. METHODS: Using complex 3D submandibular salivary gland organoids developed from embryonic progenitor cells, which respond to EGF by proliferating and FGF2 by undergoing branching morphogenesis and proacinar differentiation, we developed Raman confocal microspectroscopy methods to define Raman signatures for each of these organoid states using both fixed and live organoids. RESULTS: Three separate quantitative comparisons, Raman spectral features, multivariate analysis, and machine learning, classified distinct organoid differentiation signatures and revealed that the Raman spectral signatures were predictive of organoid phenotype. CONCLUSIONS: As the organoids were unlabeled, intact, and hydrated at the time of imaging, Raman spectral fingerprints can be used to noninvasively distinguish between different organoid phenotypes for future applications in disease modeling, drug screening, and regenerative medicine.

Engineering cryoelectrospun elastin-alginate scaffolds to serve as stromal extracellular matrices.

Scaffold-based regenerative strategies that emulate physical, biochemical, and mechanical properties of the native extracellular matrix (ECM) of the region of interest can influence cell growth and function. Existing ECM-mimicking scaffolds, including nanofiber (NF) mats, sponges, hydrogels, and NF-hydrogel composites are unable to simultaneously mimic typical composition, topography, pore size, porosity, and viscoelastic properties of healthy soft-tissue ECM. In this work, we used cryoelectrospinning to fabricate 3D porous scaffolds with minimal fibrous backbone, pore size and mechanical properties similar to soft-tissue connective tissue ECM. We used salivary glands as our soft tissue model and found the decellularized adult salivary gland (DSG) matrix to have a fibrous backbone, 10-30µm pores, 120 Pa indentation modulus, and ∼200 s relaxation half time. We used elastin and alginate as natural, compliant biomaterials and water as the solvent for cryoelectrospinning scaffolds to mimic the structure and viscoelasticity of the connective tissue ECM of the DSG. Process parameters were optimized to produce scaffolds with desirable topography and compliance similar to DSG, with a high yield of >100 scaffolds/run. Using water as solvent, rather than organic solvents, was critical to generate biocompatible scaffolds with desirable topography; further, it permitted a green chemistry fabrication process. Here, we demonstrate that cryoelectrospun scaffolds (CESs) support penetration of NIH 3T3 fibroblasts 250-450µm into the scaffold, cell survival, and maintenance of a stromal cell phenotype. Thus, we demonstrate that elastin-alginate CESs mimic many structural and functional properties of ECM and have potential for future use in regenerative medicine applications.

Single-cell RNA sequencing reveals PDGFRα+ stromal cell subpopulations that promote proacinar cell differentiation in embryonic salivary gland organoids.

Stromal cells can direct the differentiation of epithelial progenitor cells during organ development. Fibroblast growth factor (FGF) signaling is essential for submandibular salivary gland development. Through stromal fibroblast cells, FGF2 can indirectly regulate proacinar cell differentiation in organoids, but the mechanisms are not understood. We performed single-cell RNA-sequencing and identified multiple stromal cell subsets, including Pdgfra+ stromal subsets expressing both Fgf2 and Fgf10. When combined with epithelial progenitor cells in organoids, magnetic-activated cell-sorted PDGFRα+ cells promoted proacinar cell differentiation similarly to total stroma. Gene expression analysis revealed that FGF2 increased the expression of multiple stromal genes, including Bmp2 and Bmp7. Both BMP2 and BMP7 synergized with FGF2, stimulating proacinar cell differentiation but not branching. However, stromal cells grown without FGF2 did not support proacinar organoid differentiation and instead differentiated into myofibroblasts. In organoids, TGFß1 treatment stimulated myofibroblast differentiation and inhibited the proacinar cell differentiation of epithelial progenitor cells. Conversely, FGF2 reversed the effects of TGFß1. We also demonstrated that adult salivary stromal cells were FGF2 responsive and could promote proacinar cell differentiation. These FGF2 signaling pathways may have applications in future regenerative therapies.

ROCK inhibitor increases proacinar cells in adult salivary gland organoids.

Salisphere-derived adult epithelial cells have been used to improve saliva production of irradiated mouse salivary glands. Importantly, optimization of the cellular composition of salispheres could improve their regenerative capabilities. The Rho Kinase (ROCK) inhibitor, Y27632, has been used to increase the proliferation and reduce apoptosis of progenitor cells grown in vitro. In this study, we investigated whether Y27632 could be used to improve expansion of adult submandibular salivary epithelial progenitor cells or to affect their differentiation potential in different media contexts. Application of Y27632 in medium used previously to grow salispheres promoted expansion of Kit+ and Mist1+ cells, while in simple serum-containing medium Y27632 increased the number of cells that expressed the K5 basal progenitor marker. Salispheres derived from Mist1CreERT2; R26TdTomato mice grown in salisphere media with Y27632 included Mist1-derived cells. When these salispheres were incorporated into 3D organoids, inclusion of Y27632 in the salisphere stage increased the contribution of Mist1-derived cells expressing the proacinar/acinar marker, Aquaporin 5 (AQP5), in response to FGF2-dependent mesenchymal signals. Optimization of the cellular composition of salispheres and organoids can be used to improve the application of adult salivary progenitor cells in regenerative medicine strategies.

Establishment of a Murine Pro-acinar Cell Line to Characterize Roles for FGF2 and α3ß1 Integrins in Regulating Pro-acinar Characteristics.

Radiation therapy for head and neck cancers results in permanent damage to the saliva producing acinar compartment of the salivary gland. To date, a pure pro-acinar cell line to study underlying mechanisms of acinar cell differentiation in culture has not been described. Here, we report the establishment of a pro-acinar (mSG-PAC1) and ductal (mSG-DUC1) cell line, from the murine submandibular salivary gland (SMG), which recapitulate developmental milestones in differentiation. mSG-DUC1 cells express the ductal markers, keratin-7 and keratin-19, and form lumenized spheroids. mSG-PAC1 cells express the pro-acinar markers SOX10 and aquaporin-5. Using the mSG-PAC1 cell line, we demonstrate that FGF2 regulates specific steps during acinar cell maturation. FGF2 up-regulates aquaporin-5 and the expression of the α3 and α6 subunits of the α3ß1 and α6ß1 integrins that are known to promote SMG morphogenesis and differentiation. mSG-DUC1 and mSG-PAC1 cells were derived from genetically modified mice, homozygous for floxed alleles of the integrin α3 subunit. Similar to SMGs from α3-null mice, deletion of α3 alleles in mSG-PAC1 cells results in the up-regulation of E-cadherin and the down-regulation of CDC42. Our data indicate that mSG-DUC1 and mSG-PAC1 cells will serve as important tools to gain mechanistic insight into salivary gland morphogenesis and differentiation.

Generating Embryonic Salivary Gland Organoids.

Organoids are important research tools for studying organ morphogenesis and differentiation because they recapitulate ex vivo the native 3D organization of cells that is essential for proper cell and organ function. The composition of organoids can be manipulated to incorporate specific cell types to facilitate molecular interrogation of cell-cell interactions during organoid formation. A method for generating organoids derived from both embryonic salivary gland epithelial progenitor cells and mesenchymal support cells is described. Methods for isolating enriched populations of the epithelial cells as clusters and the mesenchyme cells as single cells from mouse embryonic submandibular salivary glands are also provided. Separating the epithelial and mesenchymal cell populations allows for independent molecular manipulation of each cell type. In addition, methods for lentiviral transduction of the mesenchyme cells and quantitative image analysis of organoids are provided. The methods described here are useful for exploring mechanisms driving organ formation. © 2018 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Mesenchymal Cells Affect Salivary Epithelial Cell Morphology on PGS/PLGA Core/Shell Nanofibers.

Engineering salivary glands is of interest due to the damaging effects of radiation therapy and the autoimmune disease Sjögren's syndrome on salivary gland function. One of the current problems in tissue engineering is that in vitro studies often fail to predict in vivo regeneration due to failure of cells to interact with scaffolds and of the single cell types that are typically used for these studies. Although poly (lactic co glycolic acid) (PLGA) nanofiber scaffolds have been used for in vitro growth of epithelial cells, PLGA has low compliance and cells do not penetrate the scaffolds. Using a core-shell electrospinning technique, we incorporated poly (glycerol sebacate) (PGS) into PLGA scaffolds to increase the compliance and decrease hydrophobicity. PGS/PLGA scaffolds promoted epithelial cell penetration into the scaffold and apical localization of tight junction proteins, which is necessary for epithelial cell function. Additionally, co-culture of the salivary epithelial cells with NIH3T3 mesenchymal cells on PGS/PLGA scaffolds facilitated epithelial tissue reorganization and apical localization of tight junction proteins significantly more than in the absence of the mesenchyme. These data demonstrate the applicability of PGS/PLGA nanofibers for epithelial cell self-organization and facilitation of co-culture cell interactions that promote tissue self-organization in vitro.

FGF2-dependent mesenchyme and laminin-111 are niche factors in salivary gland organoids.

Epithelial progenitor cells are dependent upon a complex 3D niche to promote their proliferation and differentiation during development, which can be recapitulated in organoids. The specific requirements of the niche remain unclear for many cell types, including the proacinar cells that give rise to secretory acinar epithelial cells that produce saliva. Here, using ex vivo cultures of E16 primary mouse submandibular salivary gland epithelial cell clusters, we investigated the requirement for mesenchymal cells and other factors in producing salivary organoids in culture. Native E16 salivary mesenchyme, but not NIH3T3 cells or mesenchymal cell conditioned medium, supported robust protein expression of the progenitor marker Kit and the acinar/proacinar marker AQP5, with a requirement for FGF2 expression by the mesenchyme. Enriched salivary epithelial clusters that were grown in laminin-enriched basement membrane extract or laminin-111 together with exogenous FGF2, but not with EGF, underwent morphogenesis to form organoids that displayed robust expression of AQP5 in terminal buds. Knockdown of FGF2 in the mesenchyme or depletion of mesenchyme cells from the organoids significantly reduced AQP5 levels even in the presence of FGF2, suggesting a requirement for autocrine FGF2 signaling in the mesenchyme cells for AQP5 expression. We conclude that basement membrane proteins and mesenchyme cells function as niche factors in salivary organoids.

RARα and RARγ reciprocally control K5+ progenitor cell expansion in developing salivary glands.

Understanding the mechanisms of controlled expansion and differentiation of basal progenitor cell populations during organogenesis is essential for developing targeted regenerative therapies. Since the cytokeratin 5-positive (K5+) basal epithelial cell population in the salivary gland is regulated by retinoic acid signaling, we interrogated how isoform-specific retinoic acid receptor (RAR) signaling impacts the K5+ cell population during salivary gland organogenesis to identify RAR isoform-specific mechanisms that could be exploited in future regenerative therapies. In this study, we utilized RAR isoform-specific inhibitors and agonists with murine submandibular salivary gland organ explants. We determined that RARα and RARγ have opposing effects on K5+ cell cycle progression and cell distribution. RARα negatively regulates K5+ cells in both whole organ explants and in isolated epithelial rudiments. In contrast, RARγ is necessary but not sufficient to positively maintain K5+ cells, as agonism of RARγ alone failed to significantly expand the population. Although retinoids are known to stimulate differentiation, K5 levels were not inversely correlated with differentiated ductal cytokeratins. Instead, RARα agonism and RARγ inhibition, corresponding with reduced K5, resulted in premature lumenization, as marked by prominin-1. With lineage tracing, we demonstrated that K5+ cells have the capacity to become prominin-1+ cells. We conclude that RARα and RARγ reciprocally control K5+ progenitor cells endogenously in the developing submandibular salivary epithelium, in a cell cycle-dependent manner, controlling lumenization independently of keratinizing differentiation. Based on these data, isoform-specific targeting RARα may be more effective than pan-RAR inhibitors for regenerative therapies that seek to expand the K5+ progenitor cell pool. SUMMARY STATEMENT: RARα and RARγ reciprocally control K5+ progenitor cell proliferation and distribution in the developing submandibular salivary epithelium in a cell cycle-dependent manner while regulating lumenization independently of keratinizing differentiation.

A Novel Impedance Biosensor for Measurement of Trans-Epithelial Resistance in Cells Cultured on Nanofiber Scaffolds.

Nanofibrous scaffolds provide high surface area for cell attachment, and resemble the structure of the collagen fibers which naturally occur in the basement membrane and extracellular matrix. A label free and non-destructive method of assessing the interaction of cell tissue and scaffolds aids in the ability to discern the effective quality and magnitude of any scaffold modifications. Impedance cell spectroscopy is a biosensing method that employs a functional approach to assessing the cell monolayer. The electrical impedance barrier function of a cell monolayer represents the level of restriction to diffusion of charged species between all adjacent cells across an entire contiguous cellular monolayer. The impedance signals from many individual paracellular pathways contribute to the bulk measurement of the whole monolayer barrier function. However, the scaffold substrate must be entirely porous in order to be used with electrochemical cell impedance spectroscopy (ECIS) and cells must be closely situated to the electrodes. For purposes of evaluating cell-scaffold constructs for tissue engineering, non-invasive evaluation of cell properties while seeded on scaffolds is critical. A Transwell-type assay makes a measurement across a semi-permeable membrane, using electrodes placed on opposing sides of the membrane immersed in fluid. It was found that by suspending a nanofiber scaffold across a Transwell aperture, it is possible to integrate a fully functional nanofiber tissue scaffold with the ECIS Transwell apparatus. Salivary epithelial cells were grown on the nanofiber scaffolds and tight junction formation was evaluated using ECIS measurements in parallel with immunostaining and confocal imaging. The trans-epithelial resistance increased coordinate with cell coverage, culminating with a cell monolayer, at which point the tight junction proteins assemble and strengthen, reaching the peak signal. These studies demonstrate that ECIS can be used to evaluate tight junction formation in cells grown on nanofiber scaffolds and on effects of scaffold conditions on cells, thus providing useful biological feedback to inform superior scaffold designs.

Elastin-PLGA hybrid electrospun nanofiber scaffolds for salivary epithelial cell self-organization and polarization.

Development of electrospun nanofibers that mimic the structural, mechanical and biochemical properties of natural extracellular matrices (ECMs) is a promising approach for tissue regeneration. Electrospun fibers of synthetic polymers partially mimic the topography of the ECM, however, their high stiffness, poor hydrophilicity and lack of in vivo-like biochemical cues is not optimal for epithelial cell self-organization and function. In search of a biomimetic scaffold for salivary gland tissue regeneration, we investigated the potential of elastin, an ECM protein, to generate elastin hybrid nanofibers that have favorable physical and biochemical properties for regeneration of the salivary glands. Elastin was introduced to our previously developed poly-lactic-co-glycolic acid (PLGA) nanofiber scaffolds by two methods, blend electrospinning (EP-blend) and covalent conjugation (EP-covalent). Both methods for elastin incorporation into the nanofibers improved the wettability of the scaffolds while only blend electrospinning of elastin-PLGA nanofibers and not surface conjugation of elastin to PLGA fibers, conferred increased elasticity to the nanofibers measured by Young's modulus. After two days, only the blend electrospun nanofiber scaffolds facilitated epithelial cell self-organization into cell clusters, assessed with nuclear area and nearest neighbor distance measurements, leading to the apicobasal polarization of salivary gland epithelial cells after six days, which is vital for cell function. This study suggests that elastin electrospun nanofiber scaffolds have potential application in regenerative therapies for salivary glands and other epithelial organs. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: Regenerating the salivary glands by mimicking the extracellular matrix (ECM) is a promising approach for long term treatment of salivary gland damage. Despite their topographic similarity to the ECM, electrospun fibers of synthetic polymers lack the biochemical complexity, elasticity and hydrophilicity of the ECM. Elastin is an ECM protein abundant in the salivary glands and responsible for tissue elasticity. Although it's widely used for tissue regeneration of other organs, little is known about its utility in regenerating the salivary tissue. This study describes the use of elastin to improve the elasticity, hydrophilicity and biochemical complexity of synthetic nanofibers and its potential in directing in vivo-like organization of epithelial salivary cells which helps the design of efficient salivary gland regeneration scaffolds.

Endothelial cell regulation of salivary gland epithelial patterning.

Perfusion-independent regulation of epithelial pattern formation by the vasculature during organ development and regeneration is of considerable interest for application in restoring organ function. During murine submandibular salivary gland development, the vasculature co-develops with the epithelium during branching morphogenesis; however, it is not known whether the vasculature has instructive effects on the epithelium. Using pharmacological inhibitors and siRNA knockdown in embryonic organ explants, we determined that VEGFR2-dependent signaling is required for salivary gland epithelial patterning. To test directly for a requirement for endothelial cells in instructive epithelial patterning, we developed a novel ex vivo cell fractionation/reconstitution assay. Immuno-depletion of CD31+ endothelial cells in this assay confirmed a requirement for endothelial cells in epithelial patterning of the gland. Depletion of endothelial cells or inhibition of VEGFR2 signaling in organ explants caused an aberrant increase in cells expressing the ductal proteins K19 and K7, with a reduction in Kit+ progenitor cells in the endbuds of reconstituted glands. Addition of exogenous endothelial cells to reconstituted glands restored epithelial patterning, as did supplementation with the endothelial cell-regulated mesenchymal factors IGFBP2 and IGFBP3. Our results demonstrate that endothelial cells promote expansion of Kit+ progenitor cells and suppress premature ductal differentiation in early developing embryonic submandibular salivary gland buds.

Changes in the Submandibular Salivary Gland Epithelial Cell Subpopulations During Progression of Sjögren's Syndrome-Like Disease in the NOD/ShiLtJ Mouse Model.

Sjögren's syndrome (SS), an autoimmune exocrinopathy, is associated with dysfunction of the secretory salivary gland epithelium, leading to xerostomia. The etiology of SS disease progression is poorly understood as it is typically not diagnosed until late stage. Since mouse models allow the study of disease progression, we investigated the NOD/ShiLtJ mouse to explore temporal changes to the salivary epithelium. In the NOD/ShiLtJ model, SS presents secondary to autoimmune diabetes, and SS disease is reportedly fully established by 20 weeks. We compared epithelial morphology in the submandibular salivary glands (SMG) of NOD/ShiLtJ mice with SMGs from the parental strain at 12, 18, and 22 weeks of age and used immunofluorescence to detect epithelial proteins, including the acinar marker, aquaporin 5, ductal cell marker, cytokeratin 7, myoepithelial cell marker, smooth muscle α-actin, and the basal cell marker, cytokeratin 5, while confirming immune infiltrates with CD45R. We also compared these proteins in the labial salivary glands of human SS patients with control tissues. In the NOD/ShiLtJ SMG, regions of lymphocytic infiltrates were not associated with widespread epithelial tissue degradation; however, there was a decrease in the area of the gland occupied by secretory epithelial cells in favor of ductal epithelial cells. We observed an expansion of cells expressing cytokeratin 5 within the ducts and within the smooth muscle α-actin(+) basal myoepithelial population. The altered acinar/ductal ratio within the NOD/ShiLtJ SMG likely contributes to salivary hypofunction, while the expansion of cytokeratin 5 positive-basal cells may reflect loss of function or indicate a regenerative response.

TGFß signaling promotes matrix assembly during mechanosensitive embryonic salivary gland restoration.

Mechanical properties of the microenvironment regulate cell morphology and differentiation within complex organs. However, methods to restore morphogenesis and differentiation in organs in which compliance is suboptimal are poorly understood. We used mechanosensitive mouse salivary gland organ explants grown at different compliance levels together with deoxycholate extraction and immunocytochemistry of the intact, assembled matrices to examine the compliance-dependent assembly and distribution of the extracellular matrix and basement membrane in explants grown at permissive or non-permissive compliance. Extracellular matrix and basement membrane assembly were disrupted in the glands grown at low compliance compared to those grown at high compliance, correlating with defective morphogenesis and decreased myoepithelial cell differentiation. Extracellular matrix and basement membrane assembly as well as myoepithelial differentiation were restored by addition of TGFß1 and by mechanical rescue, and mechanical rescue was prevented by inhibition of TGFß signaling during the rescue. We detected a basal accumulation of active integrin ß1 in the differentiating myoepithelial cells that formed a continuous peripheral localization around the proacini and in clefts within active sites of morphogenesis in explants that were grown at high compliance. The pattern and levels of integrin ß1 activation together with myoepithelial differentiation were interrupted in explants grown at low compliance but were restored upon mechanical rescue or with application of exogenous TGFß1. These data suggest that therapeutic application of TGFß1 to tissues disrupted by mechanical signaling should be examined as a method to promote organ remodeling and regeneration.

Heterotypic control of basement membrane dynamics during branching morphogenesis.

Many mammalian organs undergo branching morphogenesis to create highly arborized structures with maximized surface area for specialized organ function. Cooperative cell-cell and cell-matrix adhesions that sculpt the emerging tissue architecture are guided by dynamic basement membranes. Properties of the basement membrane are reciprocally controlled by the interacting epithelial and mesenchymal cell populations. Here we discuss how basement membrane remodeling is required for branching morphogenesis to regulate cell-matrix and cell-cell adhesions that are required for cell patterning during morphogenesis and how basement membrane impacts morphogenesis by stimulation of cell patterning, force generation, and mechanotransduction. We suggest that in addition to creating mature epithelial architecture, remodeling of the epithelial basement membrane during branching morphogenesis is also essential to promote maturation of the stromal mesenchyme to create mature organ structure. Recapitulation of developmental cell-matrix and cell-cell interactions are of critical importance in tissue engineering and regeneration strategies that seek to restore organ function.