Conservation of expression of neuropeptide Y5 receptor between human and rat hypothalamus and limbic regions suggests an integral role in central neuroendocrine control.

Neuropeptide Y receptors belong to the G-protein-coupled receptor superfamily and mediate a wide variety of physiological functions, including blood pressure regulation, hormone release, appetite control, seizure propensity, cognition, and emotion. The recent description of a new neuropeptide Y receptor, Y5, expressed in hypothalamic nuclei in rat brain, raised the possibility that Y5 was the receptor mediating the feeding and appetite-related functions of neuropeptide Y. This was supported by subsequent data showing a downregulation of this "feeding" receptor in the brain of the obese Zucker rat (Widdowson, 1997). We have performed a detailed analysis of Y5 expression in rat brain using in situ hybridization histochemistry with digoxygenin-labeled riboprobes and compared this to expression of Y5 in human brain regions. mRNA for the human Y5 receptor was highly expressed in human hypothalamic and thalamic nuclei. In particular, the arcuate and paraventricular nuclei of the hypothalamus, midline thalamic nuclei, and amygdala showed very high levels of expression with high levels in hippocampus. The striking conservation of expression of the rat and human Y5 receptors in relevant hypothalamic and other nuclei implies sharing of a major neuroendocrine functional role by this receptor.

Characterization of hypothalamic neurons expressing a neuropeptide receptor, GALR2, using combined in situ hybridization-immunohistochemistry.

Our laboratory is interested in characterizing the neurotransmitter and hormonal phenotype of neurons in the rat hypothalamus expressing novel neuropeptide receptors of the neuropeptide Y and galanin families. In this review, we describe a technique combining nonradioactive in situ hybridization to detect mRNA and fluorescence immunohistochemistry to detect protein antigens. We examined paraffin sections of rat hypothalamus using confocal microscopy to determine whether mRNA for the galanin receptor, GALR2, was colocalized at the cellular level of resolution with somatostatin or tyrosine hydroxylase immunoreactivity. We found that many neurons in the hypothalamus expressed both GALR2 mRNA and either somatostatin or tyrosine hydroxylase immunoreactivity. The simultaneous detection of mRNA and protein immunoreactivity in individual neurons using the confocal microscope for visualization is an excellent tool for the analysis of newly characterized genes in the central nervous system.

Phosphorylation of proteins in chick ciliary ganglion under conditions that induce long-lasting changes in synaptic transmission: phosphoprotein targets for nitric oxide action.

Production of nitric oxide and the activation of protein kinases are required for long-term potentiation of synaptic transmission at the giant synapses in chicken ciliary ganglion. In the present study, we investigated the ability of nitric oxide to regulate the phosphorylation of endogenous proteins under conditions that induced long-term potentiation in intact ciliary ganglion and the protein kinases responsible for the phosphorylation of these proteins in lysed ciliary ganglion. Using Calcium Green-1 we showed that the nitric oxide donor sodium nitroprusside did not change the intraterminal Ca2+ dynamics in ciliary ganglion. Two dimensional phosphopeptide analysis of 32Pi-labelled intact ciliary ganglion showed that the sodium nitroprusside (300 microM) increased the phosphorylation of several phosphopeptides (P50a, P50b and P41) derived from proteins at 50,000 and 41,000 mol. wts which we have called nitric oxide-responsive phosphoproteins. A similar stimulation of phosphorylation was achieved by 8-bromo-cyclic AMP (100 microM), which also induced long-term potentiation, but not by phorbol dibutyrate (2 microM) that does not induce long-term potentiation in ciliary ganglion. When subcellular fractions from lysed ciliary ganglion were labelled in vitro by [gamma-32P]ATP in the presence of purified cGMP-dependent, cAMP-dependent or Ca2+-phospholipid-dependent protein kinases, we identified cyclic GMP-dependent protein kinase substrates that gave rise to phosphopeptides co-migrating with P50a, P50b and P41 from 32Pi-labelled intact ciliary ganglion. P50a and P41 were derived from soluble proteins while P50b was derived from a membrane-associated protein. The proteins giving rise to P50a, P50b and P41 were also substrates for cyclic AMP-dependent protein kinase, but not for calcium and phospholipid-dependent protein kinase in vitro, suggesting that nitric oxide-responsive phosphoproteins are convergence points in information processing in vivo and their phosphorylation might represent an important mechanism in nitric oxide-mediated synaptic plasticity in ciliary ganglion.

Alpha and beta subunits of CaM-kinase II are localized in different neurons in chick ciliary ganglion.

The ciliary ganglion of the chicken contains only two types of neurons. Using monoclonal antibodies against the alpha and the beta subunits of Ca2+/calmodulin-stimulated protein kinase II (CaMPK-II) we found that the alpha-subunit was localized to the choroid neurons while beta subunit was associated with the ciliary neurons. As both neurons receive their inputs from the oculomotor nerve, while their postganglionic axons leave via different nerves, the ciliary ganglion of the chicken is a neuronal system in which the functional differences between alpha and beta CaMPK-II homopolymers in the regulation of synaptic transmission can be investigated.

Cloning, pharmacological characterization and distribution of a novel galanin receptor.

The neuropeptide galanin mediates a diverse spectrum of biological activities by interacting with specific G-protein-coupled receptors. Through expression cloning, human and rat GALR1 receptor cDNA clones have previously been isolated and characterized. In this study, we have used homology screening to isolate a rat brain cDNA clone encoding a second galanin receptor subtype, the GALR2 receptor. The isolated cDNA encodes a 372-amino-acid G-protein-coupled receptor that shares 38% overall amino-acid identity with the rat GALR1 receptor. The pharmacological profile of the rat GALR2 receptor is similar to that of the rat GALR1 receptor. The rat GALR2 receptor binds galanin, N-terminal galanin fragments, and the putative galanin receptor antagonists galantide, C7, M35 and M40 with high affinity but it does not bind C-terminal galanin fragments. Galanin increases intracellular inositol phosphate levels in HEK 293 cells expressing the rat GALR2 receptor via a pertussis toxin-insensitive G-protein. The rat GALR2 receptor mRNA is highly expressed in several brain regions, including hypothalamus and hippocampus as well as the anterior pituitary, with lower levels of expression detected in amygdala, and regions of cortex. It is also highly expressed in the GH3 pituitary cell line and in gut tissues, and to a lower extent in spleen, lung, skeletal muscle, heart, kidney, liver and testis. These results suggest that GALR2 receptor mediates galanin's regulation of pituitary hormone secretion and possibly food intake.

Vesicle-associated proteins and calcium in nerve terminals of chick ciliary ganglia during development of facilitation.

1. The developmental appearance of synaptic vesicle-associated proteins and nerve terminal calcium ([Ca2+]i) sequestering processes were determined for the chick ciliary ganglia in relation to the maturation of the different phase of increased efficacy of transmitter release following nerve impulses. The maturation phases studied were from stages 34-35, at the time of synapse formation, to stage 46 at hatching. 2. Western blots and immunohistochemical localization indicated that synaptotagmin 1 and synapsin IIa were detectable at stages 34-35 and were clearly localized at the nerve terminals by stage 37. Syntaxin was clearly localized at the nerve terminals at stage 34. 3. The relative size of the postganglionic compound action potential, used to measure the transmission efficacy through the ganglion, showed that the slope of the relationship between log efficacy and log extracellular calcium concentration ([Ca2+]o) in low [Ca2+]o was about 4 by stage 46. 4. A mature facilitatory mechanism for transmission was not present at stage 34 and did not emerge until stage 38. A mature augmentation was not present at stages 34 or 38 and was not established until stages 41-42. Post-tetanic potentiation (PTP) was not present at stage 34; it was evident at stages 37-38 and only reached maturity by stages 41-42. 5. The time course of calcium changes in the nerve terminals following trains of impulses that give rise to facilitation, augmentation and PTP was determined for different stages of development using the indicator Calcium Green-1 in the nerve terminal. The mature time course of the phases of calcium decline in the nerve terminal associated with facilitation and augmentation was observed as early as stage 38, whereas that of the PTP phase did not mature until after stage 42. 6. These results are discussed in terms of the maturation of the vesicle-associated proteins and calcium influx into the terminal following trains of impulses that give rise to the different components of increased synaptic efficacy.

Characterization of protein kinase and phosphatase systems in chick ciliary ganglion.

The aim of the present study was to characterize the second messenger activated protein kinase and phosphatase systems in chick ciliary ganglion using biochemical and immunochemical techniques. Using synthetic peptide substrates cyclic-AMP-, cyclic-GMP-, Ca2+/calmodulin- and Ca2+/phospholipid-dependent protein kinase activities were detected in homogenates of ciliary ganglion dissected from 15-16-day-old embryos. Autophosphorylation of the alpha and beta subunits of Ca2+/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II in the presence of Ca2+/calmodulin or 5 mM ZnSO4 was detected by sodium dodecyl sulphate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis and autoradiography. Protein kinase C was shown to be present using a monoclonal antibody. Two cyclic-AMP binding proteins whose molecular weights corresponded to the regulatory subunits of cyclic AMP-dependent protein kinase (RI and RII) were detected in ciliary ganglia using 8-azido-cyclic-AMP. The most heavily labelled band following incubation with [gamma-32P]ATP under most conditions had an apparent molecular weight of 65,000 which corresponds to the chicken form of myristoylated alanine-rich C kinase substrate, a known substrate of protein kinase C. Another substrate for protein kinase C was a 45,000 molecular weight protein which was tentatively identified as neuromodulin (B-50/GAP-43). Although no endogenous substrate proteins for cyclic-GMP-dependent protein kinase were detected, protein kinase A strongly labelled a 40,000 molecular weight protein. Using 32P(i)-labelled glycogen phosphorylase, protein phosphatases 1 and 2A were identified in ciliary ganglia homogenates at levels which were indistinguishable from forebrain at the same age. The major endogenous protein substrates in ciliary ganglion homogenates from 15-16-day-old embryos were also labelled to a similar extent in homogenates of ciliary ganglia from newly hatched chickens. Intact ciliary ganglia remained viable for several hours after dissection and, after incubation with 32P(i), responded to phorbol ester stimulation by an increased endogenous phosphorylation of several proteins, but especially myristoylated alanine-rich C kinase substrate. These results represent the first systematic characterization of the protein phosphorylation systems in chicken ciliary ganglion and provide a basis for future studies on the biochemical mechanisms responsible for regulating synaptic transmission in this tissue.

Nitric oxide-mediated death of cultured neonatal retinal ganglion cells: neuroprotective properties of glutamate and chondroitin sulfate proteoglycan.

The release of nitric oxide and stimulation of glutamate receptors by excitatory amino acids has been linked to neuronal degeneration and toxicity. In the rat retina approximately 60% of retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) die during the first postnatal week. In this study we examined the effects of nitric oxide synthase blockers and glutamate on the survival of neonatal RGCs in vitro over a 16 h assay period. Less than 10% of P1 RGCs survived in serum free defined media alone (control), however survival was increased, in a dose-dependent manner, when L-glutamate (10 microM-10 mM) was added to the media; a maximum of 70% of RGCs could be maintained with the addition of 5 mM glutamate. This effect was blocked by the NMDA and non-NMDA receptor blockers APV and DNQX and was age dependent; the survival of RGCs from P5 but not P7 rats was enhanced by the addition of glutamate even in high calcium concentrations (10 mM). When the nitric oxide synthase blockers L-NAME (5 mM) or haemoglobin (25 microM) were added to the culture media, up to 61% of P1 RGCs survived. The addition of the 480 kDa chondroitin sulfate proteoglycan (SCCP) previously shown to enhance RGC survival in vivo and in vitro, potentiated the action of glutamate and L-NAME and increased RGC survival to over 90% with almost all RGCs expressing a profusion of processes. These results suggest that the release of nitric oxide and glutamate by cells within the retina may contribute to the regulation of RGC numbers in vivo during development.

Location of nitric oxide synthase in the developing avian ciliary ganglion.

A study has been made of the distribution of nitric oxide synthase (NOS) in the developing avian ciliary ganglion. Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate diaphorase (NADPH-d) activity first appeared in ciliary neurones at embryonic day 10 (E10). The number of NADPH-d positive neurones appeared maximal at this age and thereafter declined; at post hatched day 4 (P4) these neurones were found predominately in the periphery of the ganglion. At the light microscope level the NADPH-d stain appeared throughout the cell soma of the ciliary neurones. This was confirmed using tissue culture techniques. Ultrastructural delineation of horseradish peroxidase-labelled NOS antibodies was also found in the calyx where it was bound to the membranes of the endoplasmic reticulum as well as to the outer membranes of mitochondria. This distribution of NOS in the soma and calyx is consistent with the physiological role of NO as a co-transmitter and retrograde messenger that regulates the quantal secretion of the principal transmitter, acetylcholine, from the calyx.

The pattern of expression of a 13-kDa protein (CS-32 antigen) in the retina and its target nuclei in developing and mature rats.

A polyclonal antibody (designated CS-32) immunopurifies a 13-kDa protein from the superior colliculus (SC) of neonatal rat. There is a strikingly inverse temporal relationship in expression of the 13-kDa protein in the developing retina and its principal target nuclei, SC and the dorsal lateral geniculate nucleus. The 13-kDa is a cell-surface protein expressed exclusively by neurones and is clearly associated with synapses.

Retinal ganglion cell survival in vitro maintained by a chondroitin sulfate proteoglycan from the superior colliculus carrying the HNK-1 epitope.

We recently reported evidence implicating a superior colliculus-derived chondroitin sulfate proteoglycan (SCCP) in the trophic support of cultured retinal ganglion cells (Schulz et al., 1990). In the present work we show preparations of the SCCP to be reactive with an antibody (CS-56) to chondroitin sulfate types A and C and with the HNK-1 antibody. Reaction with the HNK-1 antibody allowed us partially to purify the native proteoglycan by immunoaffinity chromatography. HNK-1 reactive material was further processed by a combination of molecular sieve chromatography in the presence of 4M guanidine HCL followed by anion exchange chromatography to yield a product that migrated electrophoretically as a single band in polyacrylamide gel with an apparent molecular weight of not less than 400 k. The SCCP, when added to a fully defined culture medium, maintained the survival of the vast majority (80%) of the ganglion cells over a 16 hr culture period with 86% of these cells showing a profusion of processes; few ganglion cells (10%) survived in the absence of the proteoglycan. Electrophoretic analysis of nonreduced preparations of the molecule did not reveal any low molecular weight silver stained components that may have remained associated with the molecule after guanidine HCL treatment. However, two bands corresponding to molecular weights of around 60 and 80 k were reproducibly observed on polyacrylamide gels following electrophoresis of the molecule in the presence of beta-mercaptoethanol. Our findings provide further evidence suggesting a role for a chondroitin sulfate proteoglycan carrying the HNK-1 epitope in the trophic support of central neurones.

Ezrin immunoreactivity in neuron subpopulations: cellular distribution in relation to cytoskeletal proteins in sensory neurons.

Ezrin was first identified as a low-abundance phosphoprotein associated with the cytoskeletal core of microvilli, where it may function as a regulatory protein. We report immunocytochemical evidence for expression of ezrin, or an ezrin-like protein of molecular mass near 80 KD, confined to select populations of neurons, including sensory, motor, and autonomic, during chick embryonic development. We have compared the distribution of anti-ezrin staining with that of other major cytoskeletal proteins in sensory neurons in an effort to identify a possible association of the neural homologue of ezrin with the neuronal cytoskeleton. The diffuse distribution of anti-ezrin staining in the cell soma bore little resemblance to the filamentous staining observed with antibodies to the 68 KD neurofilament protein and alpha-tubulin. F-actin staining with fluorescein-conjugated phalloidin was indistinguishable from the anti-ezrin staining pattern in the soma of cultured neurons, including a peak in staining intensity around the periphery of the cell. Microfilaments in growth cones did not stain with the ezrin antibody. A close correspondence between the anti-ezrin and anti-spectrin staining patterns was found on cryostat sections of dorsal root ganglia, but the anti-spectrin staining was weak and could not be demonstrated in culture. Our findings, primarily from cultured neurons, are not inconsistent with ezrin associating with F-actin, although not with microfilaments found in motile structures such as growth cones.

Motoneurone survival and neurite regeneration requirements: the role of dorsal root ganglion cells during development.

The effect of dissociated dorsal root ganglion cells on the survival of motoneurones in vitro from differently aged chick embryos has been studied. Homogeneous cultures of motoneurones were prepared from 5-8-day embryos, using a cell sorter; dorsal root ganglion cells were obtained from 8-day embryos. The survival of motoneurones from 5-day and 6-day embryos was not enhanced above controls by the presence of dorsal root ganglion cells; however, the survival of motoneurones from older embryos was greatly increased, reaching a maximum of over 80% for 8-day embryonic motoneurones. In contrast, the number of motoneurones that had regenerated neurites when co-cultured with dorsal root ganglion cells for 24 h decreased with the motoneurone age at plating, from 51% at 5 days to less than 10% for 7- and 8-day motoneurones. The survival-enhancing effects were probably mediated by cell contact between the motoneurones and processes of the dorsal root ganglion cells: conditioned media from high-density cultures of dorsal root ganglion cells could not be shown to significantly enhance the survival of motoneurones above that of control levels. The possibility that the ganglion cells exert this survival enhancing effect by depolarizing the motoneurones was examined by exposing 8-day sorted motoneurones to 47 mM potassium; this did not effect the survival of the motoneurones relative to control levels. The stage dependency of the survival of motoneurones on different neurotrophic factors and the dorsal root ganglion cell is discussed.