Co-translational folding of an alphavirus capsid protein in the cytosol of living cells.

The Semliki Forest virus capsid protein contains a chymotrypsin-like protease domain that must fold before it can autocatalytically cleave the protein from a larger polyprotein precursor. Here we analyse this cleavage in living mammalian and prokaryotic cells, and find that it occurs immediately after the emergence of the protease domain from the ribosome during protein synthesis. The acquisition of the native conformation of this domain thus occurs rapidly and at the same time as translation. It does not require termination of translation or release from the ribosome, and nor does it involve Hsp70 binding. These results provide direct evidence that protein folding can occur co-translationally in the cytosol of both prokaryotes and eukaryotes.

Herpes simplex virus glycoprotein D can bind to poliovirus receptor-related protein 1 or herpesvirus entry mediator, two structurally unrelated mediators of virus entry.

Several cell membrane proteins have been identified as herpes simplex virus (HSV) entry mediators (Hve). HveA (formerly HVEM) is a member of the tumor necrosis factor receptor family, whereas the poliovirus receptor-related proteins 1 and 2 (PRR1 and PRR2, renamed HveC and HveB) belong to the immunoglobulin superfamily. Here we show that a truncated form of HveC directly binds to HSV glycoprotein D (gD) in solution and at the surface of virions. This interaction is dependent on the native conformation of gD but independent of its N-linked glycosylation. Complex formation between soluble gD and HveC appears to involve one or two gD molecules for one HveC protein. Since HveA also mediates HSV entry by interacting with gD, we compared both structurally unrelated receptors for their binding to gD. Analyses of several gD variants indicated that structure and accessibility of the N-terminal domain of gD, essential for HveA binding, was not necessary for HveC interaction. Mutations in functional regions II, III, and IV of gD had similar effects on binding to either HveC or HveA. Competition assays with neutralizing anti-gD monoclonal antibodies (MAbs) showed that MAbs from group Ib prevented HveC and HveA binding to virions. However, group Ia MAbs blocked HveC but not HveA binding, and conversely, group VII MAbs blocked HveA but not HveC binding. Thus, we propose that HSV entry can be mediated by two structurally unrelated gD receptors through related but not identical binding with gD.

Functional region IV of glycoprotein D from herpes simplex virus modulates glycoprotein binding to the herpesvirus entry mediator.

Glycoprotein D (gD) of herpes simplex virus (HSV) is essential for virus entry and has four functional regions (I to IV) important for this process. We previously showed that a truncated form of a functional region IV variant, gD1(Delta290-299t), had an enhanced ability to block virus entry and to bind to the herpesvirus entry mediator (HveAt; formerly HVEMt), a cellular receptor for HSV. To explore this phenotype further, we examined other forms of gD, especially ones with mutations in region IV. Variant proteins with deletions of amino acids between 277 and 300 (region IV), as well as truncated forms lacking C-terminal residues up to amino acid 275 of gD, were able to block HSV entry into Vero cells 1 to 2 logs better than wild-type gD1(306t). In contrast, gD truncated at residue 234 did not block virus entry into Vero cells. Using optical biosensor technology, we recently showed that gD1(Delta290-299t) had a 100-fold-higher affinity for HveAt than gD1(306t) (3.3 x 10(-8) M versus 3.2 x 10(-6) M). Here we found that the affinities of other region IV variants for HveAt were similar to that of gD1(Delta290-299t). Thus, the affinity data follow the same hierarchy as the blocking data. In each case, the higher affinity was due primarily to a faster kon rather than to a slower koff. Therefore, once the gDt-HveAt complex formed, its stability was unaffected by mutations in or near region IV. gD truncated at residue 234 bound to HveAt with a lower affinity (2.0 x 10(-5) M) than did gD1(306t) due to a more rapid koff. These data suggest that residues between 234 and 275 are important for maintaining stability of the gDt-HveAt complex and that functional region IV is important for modulating the binding of gD to HveA. The binding properties of any gD1(234t)-receptor complex could account for the inability of this form of gDt to block HSV infection.

Examination of the kinetics of herpes simplex virus glycoprotein D binding to the herpesvirus entry mediator, using surface plasmon resonance.

Previously, we showed that truncated soluble forms of herpes simplex virus (HSV) glycoprotein D (gDt) bound directly to a truncated soluble form of the herpesvirus entry mediator (HveAt, formerly HVEMt), a cellular receptor for HSV. The purpose of the present study was to determine the affinity of gDt for HveAt by surface plasmon resonance and to compare and contrast the kinetics of an expanded panel of gDt variants in binding to HveAt in an effort to better understand the mechanism of receptor binding and virus entry. Both HveAt and gDt are dimers in solution and interact with a 2:1 stoichiometry. With HveAt, gD1(306t) (from the KOS strain of HSV-1) had a dissociation constant (KD) of 3.2 x 10(-6) M and gD2(306t) had a KD of 1.5 x 10(-6) M. The interaction between gDt and HveAt fits a 1:1 Langmuir binding model, i.e., two dimers of HveAt may act as one binding unit to interact with one dimer of gDt as the second binding unit. A gD variant lacking all signals for N-linked oligosaccharides had an affinity for HveAt similar to that of gD1(306t). A variant lacking the bond from cysteine 1 to cysteine 5 had an affinity for HveAt that did not differ from that of the wild type. However, variants with double cysteine mutations that eliminated either of the other two disulfide bonds showed decreased affinity for HveAt. This result suggests that two of the three disulfide bonds of gD are important for receptor binding. Four nonfunctional gDt variants, each representing one functional domain of gD, were also studied. Mutations in functional regions I and II drastically decreased the affinity of gDt for HveAt. Surprisingly, a variant with an insertion in functional region III had a wild-type level of affinity for HveAt, suggesting that this domain may function in virus entry at a step other than receptor binding. A variant with a deletion in functional region IV [gD1(Delta290-299t)] exhibited a 100-fold enhancement in affinity for HveAt (KD = 3.3 x 10(-8) M) due mainly to a 40-fold increase in its kinetic on rate. This agrees with the results of other studies showing the enhanced ability of gD1(Delta290-299t) to block infection. Interestingly, all the variants with decreased affinities for HveAt exhibited decreased kinetic on rates but only minor changes in their kinetic off rates. The results suggest that once the complex between gDt and HveAt forms, its stability is unaffected by a variety of changes in gD.

Monoclonal antibodies to distinct sites on herpes simplex virus (HSV) glycoprotein D block HSV binding to HVEM.

HVEM (for herpesvirus entry mediator) is a member of the tumor necrosis factor receptor superfamily and mediates entry of many strains of herpes simplex virus (HSV) into normally nonpermissive Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cells. We used sucrose density centrifugation to demonstrate that purified HSV-1 KOS virions bind directly to a soluble, truncated form of HVEM (HVEMt) in the absence of any other cell-associated components. Therefore, HVEM mediates HSV entry by serving as a receptor for the virus. We previously showed that soluble, truncated forms of HSV glycoprotein D (gDt) bind to HVEMt in vitro. Here we show that antibodies specific for gD, but not the other entry glycoproteins gB, gC, or the gH/gL complex, completely block HSV binding to HVEM. Thus, virion gD is the principal mediator of HSV binding to HVEM. To map sites on virion gD which are necessary for its interaction with HVEM, we preincubated virions with gD-specific monoclonal antibodies (MAbs). MAbs that recognize antigenic sites Ib and VII of gD were the only MAbs which blocked the HSV-HVEM interaction. MAbs from these two groups failed to coprecipitate HVEMt in the presence of soluble gDt, whereas the other anti-gD MAbs coprecipitated HVEMt and gDt. Previous mapping data indicated that site VII includes amino acids 11 to 19 and site Ib includes 222 to 252. The current experiments indicate that these sites contain residues important for HSV binding to HVEM. Group Ib and VII MAbs also blocked HSV entry into HVEM-expressing CHO cells. These results suggest that the mechanism of neutralization by these MAbs is via interference with the interaction between gD in the virus and HVEM on the cell. Group Ia and II MAbs failed to block HSV binding to HVEM yet still neutralized HVEM-mediated entry, suggesting that these MAbs block entry at a step other than HVEM binding.

Expression and Purification of Secreted Forms of HSV Glycoproteins from Baculovirus-Infected Insect Cells.

Herpes simplex virus (HSV) remains a major human pathogen worldwide (25 causing cold sores, eye and genital infections, blindness, encephalitis, and neonatal infections. Most adults have antibodies against the oral form of the virus HSV-1 (9), and a significant number are infected with the genital form, HSV-2. Both serotypes establish lifelong latent infections and reactivate periodically to produce recurrent disease (25). After infection, virus-encoded glycoproteins are expressed on all cellular membranes and are major targets of the host's immune response. The virion envelope contains 10 glycoproteins that are important for infection and pathogenesis of HSV-1 and HSV-2. Because HSV contains so many glycoproteins, sorting out their functions in virus entry remains a difficult task. Our approach has focused on establishing structure-function relationships of the individual glycoproteins with particular emphasis on gC and gD. After many years of studying the properties of these proteins in HSV-infected and plasmid-transfected mammalian cells, we have now begun to overexpress the proteins using a baculovirus expression system.

Glycoprotein D of herpes simplex virus (HSV) binds directly to HVEM, a member of the tumor necrosis factor receptor superfamily and a mediator of HSV entry.

Glycoprotein D (gD) is a structural component of the herpes simplex virus (HSV) envelope which is essential for virus entry into host cells. Chinese hamster ovary (CHO-K1) cells are one of the few cell types which are nonpermissive for the entry of many HSV strains. However, when these cells are transformed with the gene for the herpesvirus entry mediator (HVEM), the resulting cells, CHO-HVEM12, are permissive for many HSV strains, such as HSV-1(KOS). By virtue of its four cysteine-rich pseudorepeats, HVEM is a member of the tumor necrosis factor receptor superfamily of proteins. Recombinant forms of gD and HVEM, gD-1(306t) and HVEM(200t), respectively, were used to demonstrate a specific physical interaction between these two proteins. This interaction was dependent on native gD conformation but independent of its N-linked oligosaccharides, as expected from previous structure-function studies. Recombinant forms of gD derived from HSV-1(KOS)rid1 and HSV-1(ANG) did not bind to HVEM(200t), explaining the inability of these viruses to infect CHO-HVEM12 cells. A variant gD protein, gD-1(delta290-299t), showed enhanced binding to HVEM(200t) relative to the binding of gD-1(306t). Competition studies showed that gD-1(delta290-299t) and gD-1(306t) bound to the same region of HVEM(200t), suggesting that the differences in binding to HVEM are due to differences in affinity. These differences were also reflected in the ability of gD-1(delta290-299t) but not gD-1(306t) to block HSV type 1 infection of CHO-HVEM12 cells. By gel filtration chromatography, the complex between gD-1(delta290-299t) and HVEM(200t) had a molecular mass of 113 kDa and a molar ratio of 1:2. We conclude that HVEM interacts directly with gD, suggesting that HVEM is a receptor for virion gD and that the interaction between these proteins is a step in HSV entry into HVEM-expressing cells.

Antigenic structure of soluble herpes simplex virus (HSV) glycoprotein D correlates with inhibition of HSV infection.

Soluble forms of herpes simplex virus (HSV) glycoprotein D (gD) block viral penetration. Likewise, most HSV strains are sensitive to gD-mediated interference by cells expressing gD. The mechanism of both forms of gD-mediated inhibition is thought to be at the receptor level. We analyzed the ability of different forms of soluble, truncated gD (gDt) to inhibit infection by different strains of HSV-1 and HSV-2. Strains that were resistant to gD-mediated interference were also resistant to inhibition by gDt, thereby suggesting a link between these two phenomena. Virion gD was the major viral determinant for resistance to inhibition by gDt. An insertion-deletion mutant, gD-1(delta 290-299t), had an enhanced inhibitory activity against most strains tested. The structure and function of gDt proteins derived from the inhibition-resistant viruses rid1 and ANG were analyzed. gD-1(ridlt) and gD-1(ANGt) had a potent inhibitory effect on plaque formation by wild-type strains of HSV but, surprisingly, little or no effect on their parental strains. As measured by quantitative enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay with a diverse panel of monoclonal antibodies, the antigenic structures of gD-1(rid1t) and gD-1(ANGt) were divergent from that of the wild type yet were similar to each other and to that of gD-1 (delta 290-299t). Thus, three different forms of gD have common antigenic changes that correlate with enhanced inhibitory activity against HSV. We conclude that inhibition of HSV infectivity by soluble gD is influenced by the antigenic conformation of the blocking gDt as well as the form of gD in the target virus.

Structure-function analysis of soluble forms of herpes simplex virus glycoprotein D.

Glycoprotein D (gD) of herpes simplex virus (HSV) is essential for virus entry. Truncated forms of gD lacking the transmembrane and cytoplasmic tail regions have been shown to bind to cells and block plaque formation. Using complementation analysis and a panel of gD mutants, we previously identified four regions of gD (regions I to IV) which are important for virus entry. Here, we used baculovirus vectors to overexpress truncated forms of wild-type gD from HSV type 1 (HSV-1) [gD-1(306t)] and HSV-2 [gD-2(306t)] and four mutants, gD-1(inverted delta 34t), gD-1(inverted delta 126t), gD-1(inverted delta 243t), and gD-1(delta 290-299t), each having a mutation in one of the four functional regions. We used an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay and circular dichroism to analyze the structure of these proteins, and we used functional assays to study the role of gD in binding, penetration, and cell-to-cell spread. gD-1 and gD-2 are similar in antigenic structure and thermal stability but vary in secondary structure. Mutant proteins with insertions in region I or II were most altered in structure and stability, while mutants with insertions in region III or IV were less altered. gD-1(306t) and gD-2(306t) inhibited both plaque formation and cell-to-cell transmission of HSV-1. In spite of obvious structural differences, all of the mutant proteins bound to cells, confirming that binding is not the only function of gD. The region I mutant did not inhibit HSV plaque formation or cell-to-cell spread, suggesting that this region is necessary for the function of gD in these processes. Surprisingly, the other three mutant proteins functioned in all of the in vitro assays, indicating that the ability of gD to bind to cells and inhibit infection does not correlate with its ability to initiate infection as measured by the complementation assay. The region IV mutant, gD-1(delta 290-299t), had an unexpected enhanced inhibitory effect on HSV infection. Taken together, the results argue against a single functional domain in gD. It is likely that different gD structural elements are involved in successive steps of infection.