Fires in the face of climate change: Indicators of fire disturbance in heath areas - Inference from military training lands.

Global warming significantly affects the frequency and intensity of wildfires in many fire-prone areas of the world and fire disturbance regimes are changing rapidly. Alongside this, controlled burning is often considered or implemented as an alternative method for nature protection. Here, we studied the post-fire secondary succession in dry heath habitat located in military training grounds to recognise the impact of fire on the effectiveness and rate of ecosystem recovery. We focus particularly on identifying indicator species for a given successional phase of Central European dry heath habitats and assessing their value for dating the last fire disturbance. The research involved 60 vegetation patches (plots of 25 m2), which were assigned to four post-fire age classes, namely: 1-5 years (Class A), 6-10 years (Class B), 11-15 years (Class C), and >15 years (Class D). In each study plot, species diversity and coverage of lichens, bryophytes and vascular plants were examined in addition to the physicochemical properties of the soil substrate. Cryptogams and vascular plants clearly differ in terms of the secondary succession pattern; specific sets of cryptogams correspond well to particular post-fire classes and are therefore good determinants of the post-fire succession stage. Spontaneous succession of plant vegetation eventually leads to complete recovery of the heath in a relatively short time. Nevertheless, great vegetation dynamics in the first years after a fire disturbance may result in seemingly different directions of succession. Post-fire classes did not differ noticeably in terms of soil properties, it follows that the effects of fire on soil conditions are negligible; though, a significant upward trend was observed for exchangeable form of K throughout the succession process. Our results indicate that sporadic fires reduce the undesirable overgrowth of heathlands or psamophilous grasslands and generally have a little negative side-effect on the ecosystem. The revealed succession patterns and defined sets of species characteristic for subsequent post-fire age classes are applicable to dating fire disturbances, regardless of whether the fire was planned or spontaneous.

Geographical-Historical Analysis of the Herbarium Specimens Representing the Economically Important Family Amaranthaceae (Chenopodiaceae-Amaranthaceae Clade) Collected in 1821-2022 and Preserved in the Herbarium of the Jagiellonian University in Krakow.

Herbaria constitute a form of documentation, store and secure comparative material, as well as constitute an extra original gene bank. They are an invaluable database among others for the biological, ethnobotanical and agricultural sciences. The digitization of herbarium collections significantly facilitates access to archival materials; however, searching them is still time-consuming. Therefore, our work aims to analyze the herbarium collection of 8801 sheets for specimens representing the economically important family Amaranthaceae (Chenopodiaceae-Amaranthaceae clade) deposited the oldest herbarium in Poland, the herbarium of the Jagiellonian University (KRA). These specimens have been collected from almost all the continents in dozens of countries for over 200 years. The analyses conducted, including the taxonomic coverage, geographical characteristics and origin, temporal coverage and utility importance of representative species, present the discussed resources in a more accessible way and may become a more attractive form for scientists potentially interested in more advanced research work.

Hybrids as mirrors of the past: genomic footprints reveal spatio-temporal dynamics and extinction risk of alpine extremophytes in the mountains of Central Asia.

Hybridization is one of the key processes shaping lineage diversification, particularly in regions that experienced strong climate oscillations. The alpine biome with its rich history of glacial-interglacial cycles and complex patterns of species distribution shifts offers an excellent system to investigate the impact of gene flow on population dynamics and speciation, important issues for evolutionary biology and biodiversity conservation. In this study, we combined genomic data (DArTseq), chloroplast markers, and morphology to examine phylogenetic relationships and the permeability of species boundaries and their evolutionary outcomes among the alpine extremophilic species of Puccinellia (Poaceae) in the Pamir Mountains, a part of the Mountains of Central Asia biodiversity hotspot. We determined the occurrence of interspecific hybrids between P. himalaica and P. pamirica, which demonstrated almost symmetric ancestry from their parental species and did not show signals of introgression. According to our integrative revision, the natural hybrids between P. himalaica and P. pamirica should be classified as Puccinellia ×vachanica (pro species). Using approximate Bayesian computation for population history inference, we uncovered that P. himalaica hybridized with P. pamirica independently in multiple localities over the Holocene. Hybrids inherited the fine-scale genetic structure from their parental species, which developed these patterns earlier, during the Late Pleistocene. Hybridization had different consequences for the involved parental lineages, likely playing an important role in a continuing decline of P. himalaica in the Pamir Mountains over the Holocene. Our results show that P. himalaica should be considered a critically endangered species in the Pamir Mountains and could also be retreating across its entire range of distribution in High Mountain Asia. Using a comparative phylogeographic framework, we revealed the risk of extinction of a cold-adapted alpine species in a global biodiversity hotspot. This study highlights that genomics could unravel diversity trends under climate change and provides valuable evidence for conservation management.

Insight into the phylogeny and responses of species from the genus Sergia (Campanulaceae) to the climate changes predicted for the Mountains of Central Asia (a world biodiversity hotspot).

BACKGROUND: Together with other elevated areas, the Mountains of Central Asia are significantly threatened by ongoing climate change. The presence of refuges during the glaciations makes the region extremely rich in species, especially endemic ones. However, the limited potential for colonisation of other habitats makes rocky-related species with 'island-like' distribution, particularly vulnerable to climate change. To understand the processes underlying species response to climate warming, we assessed differences in ecological niches and phylogenetic relationship of two geographically disjunctive alpine species belonging to the genus Sergia. The taxa are considered Tertiary relicts, endemic to the Tian Shan and Pamir-Alai Mountains. To illustrate range dynamics and differences in occupied niches of Sergia species, we used Ecological Niche Modelling of current and future distribution. Whereas, to reconstruct the phylogenetic relationship within and between Sergia and other related Campanulaceae species from the region we used molecular data (ITS, cpDNA, DArTseq-derived SNPs). RESULTS: The results reveal that the genus Sergia is a polyphyletic group, and its representatives differ geographically, ecologically and genetically. Both S. regelii and S. sewerzowii constitute a common clade with Asyneuma group, however, S. sewerzowii is more closely related to Campanula alberti (a species that has never previously been considered closely related to the genus Asyneuma or Sergia) than to S. regelii. Sergia sewerzowii is adapted to lower elevations with higher temperatures, while S. regelii prefers higher elevations with lower temperatures. The future distribution models demonstrate a dramatic loss of S. regelii range with a shift to suitable habitats in higher elevations, while the potential range of S. sewerzowii increases and shifts to the north. CONCLUSIONS: This study shows that S. regelii and S. sewerzowii have a long and independent evolution history. Sergia regelii and S. sewerzowii significantly differ in realised niches. These differences are mirrored in the response of the studied endemics to future climate warming. As suitable habitats shrink, rapid changes in distribution can lead to species' range loss, which is also directly related to declines in genetic variability. The outcomes of this paper will help to more precisely assess the impact of climate changes on rocky-related plant species found in this world's biodiversity hotspot.

Hybridization and introgression events in cooccurring populations of closely related grasses (Poaceae: Stipa) in high mountain steppes of Central Asia.

Stipa is a genus comprising ca. 150 species found in warm temperate regions of the Old World and around 30% of its representatives are of hybrid origin. In this study, using integrative taxonomy approach, we tested the hypothesis that hybridization and introgression are the explanations of the morphological intermediacy in species belonging to Stipa sect. Smirnovia, one of the species-rich sections in the mountains of Central Asia. Two novel nothospecies, S. magnifica × S. caucasica subsp. nikolai and S. lingua × S. caucasica subsp. nikolai, were identified based on a combination of morphological characters and SNPs markers. SNPs marker revealed that all S. lingua × S. caucasica samples were F1 hybrids, whereas most of S. magnifica × S. caucasica samples were backcross hybrids. Furthermore, the above mentioned hybrids exhibit transgressive morphological characters to each of their parental species. These findings have implications for understanding the process of hybridization in the genus Stipa, particularly in the sect. Smirnovia. As a taxonomic conclusion, we describe the two new nothospecies S. × muksuensis (from Tajikistan) and S. × ochyrae (from Kyrgyzstan) and present an identification key to species morphologically similar to the taxa mentioned above.

Alpine Extremophytes in Evolutionary Turmoil: Complex Diversification Patterns and Demographic Responses of a Halophilic Grass in a Central Asian Biodiversity Hotspot.

Diversification and demographic responses are key processes shaping species evolutionary history. Yet we still lack a full understanding of ecological mechanisms that shape genetic diversity at different spatial scales upon rapid environmental changes. In this study, we examined genetic differentiation in an extremophilic grass Puccinellia pamirica and factors affecting its population dynamics among the occupied hypersaline alpine wetlands on the arid Pamir Plateau in Central Asia. Using genomic data, we found evidence of fine-scale population structure and gene flow among the localities established across the high-elevation plateau as well as fingerprints of historical demographic expansion. We showed that an increase in the effective population size could coincide with the Last Glacial Period, which was followed by the species demographic decline during the Holocene. Geographic distance plays a vital role in shaping spatial genetic structure of P. pamirica alongside with isolation-by-environment and habitat fragmentation. Our results highlight a complex history of divergence and gene flow in this species-poor alpine region during the Late Quaternary. We demonstrate that regional climate specificity and a shortage of non-climate data largely impede predictions of future range changes of the alpine extremophile using ecological niche modelling. This study emphasises the importance of fine-scale environmental heterogeneity for population dynamics and species distribution shifts.

Preliminary checklist of the genus Festuca L. (Loliinae, Pooideae, Poaceae) in the Altai Mountains with outlines for further studies.

Here we present an updated checklist of the genus Festuca in the Altai Mountains (AM). The study was carried out on the abundant herbarium material and considered the latest published phylogenetic analyses. Festuca was revised within the scope of the fine-leaved group (clade) with two sections, sect. Aulaxyper and sect. Festuca. Two species, namely F.richardsonii and F.lenensis, were previously misidentified and are not present in the AM. Festucabrevissima is a new record for the Russian part of the AM and for the flora of Mongolia. In total, our revision shows that 17 species of fine-leaved fescues are present in the area of AM. In this paper, we provide a key to species identification, as well as illustrations of plants, habits, leaves, spikelets, and glumes. Information on nomenclature types, synonymy, flowering period, chromosome numbers, habitats, and general distribution along with distribution maps of the particular species within the AM are included.

Matching the puzzle piece to a new jigsaw: The effect of surrounding environments on plants and invertebrates in the translocated wet meadow.

Habitat translocation is a method of habitat salvation conducted in cases of its inevitable destruction during construction projects. To evaluate the large-scale turf translocation of wet meadows to derelict land, with consideration of the possible impact of the surrounding area on the translocated habitat, salvaged Molinion meadows were compared to reference meadows near the donor site and to varied plots in the receptor area. The study included the soil, vegetation and selected groups of invertebrates at different motility and food levels. Pollinators (wild bees, butterflies), grasshoppers, ants and soil mesofauna, with emphasis on springtails, were counted and identified to the species level. Lower numbers of springtails and higher numbers of grasshoppers were observed in the translocated plots than in the reference plots. For springtails, the decreased soil porosity was a clear disadvantage. Mobile animals with a high food specificity responded dynamically to the habitat translocation. The translocated plots maintained their biodiversity. However, an influx of cosmopolitan species was noticeable, especially for the plants and pollinators. A few vulnerable species declined in number. The habitat translocation to derelict land was associated with a deterioration of the ecological condition of the habitat; thus, natural habitats should be preserved where they are if possible. However, in the case of their inevitable destruction, translocation is better than nothing. Revitalised areas can be a valuable spot for local pollinators, as well as for other animals, as far as their biodiversity is maintained. Caring for pollinators, which are under threat on a global scale, should be a particular concern for the safety of crops and phytocoenoses.

Taxonomy and distribution of Taraxacum sect. Erythrosperma (Asteraceae) in Poland.

The dandelions from Taraxacumsect.Erythrosperma are taxonomically well distinguished and ecologically restricted to warm and sunlit habitats of steppes, dry and sandy grasslands, and distributed in temperate regions of Europe and Central Asia, with some being introduced to North America. Despite the long tradition of botanical research, the taxonomy and distribution of dandelions of T.sect.Erythrosperma is still underexplored in central Europe. In this paper, by combining traditional taxonomic studies supported by micromorphological, molecular and flow cytometry analyses as well as potential distribution modelling we shed light on taxonomical and phylogenetical relationships between members of T.sect.Erythrosperma in Poland. We also provide an identification key, species-checklist, detailed descriptions of morphology and occupated habitats as well as distribution maps for 14 Polish erythrosperms (T.bellicum, T.brachyglossum, T.cristatum, T.danubium, T.disseminatum, T.dissimile, T.lacistophyllum, T.parnassicum, T.plumbeum, T.proximum, T.sandomiriense, T.scanicum, T.tenuilobum, T.tortilobum). Finally, conservation assessments performed using the IUCN method and threat categories for all the examined species are proposed.

First insight into the phylogeny of fine-leaved Festuca in the Altai Mountain Country based on genome-wide genotyping.

Festuca is one of the largest genera within the Poaceae family. Molecular phylogenies demonstrate that Festuca s.l. comprises two groups: broad- and fine-leaved species. The latter is the species-richest and taxonomically complicated group due to being paraphyletic. Here, we provide the first insight into the phylogeny of 17 fine-leaved species of Altai fescues. Based on genome-wide genotyping, the examined taxa were divided into three markedly differentiated clusters. The first cluster comprises species from the F. rubra complex, the second cluster includes the F. brachyphylla complex, and the third cluster contains taxa from the groups F. ovina, F. valesiaca, and F. kryloviana. Importantly, we detected a complex genetic pattern within the groups of F. valesiaca and F. kryloviana. Moreover, our findings underline a discrepancy between morphological and molecular data for some species distributed within the Altai Mountain Country. We suggest that in order to validate the current findings on the fine-leaved fescues, additional comprehensive research including morphological, karyological, and molecular methods is required. Nonetheless, our work provides a baseline for further investigations on the genus and studies on the floral diversity of Asia.

Temperature and Precipitation More Than Tree Cover Affect the Distribution Patterns of Epiphytic Mosses within the Orthotrichaceae Family in China and Adjacent Areas.

Epiphytes, including vascular and non-vascular, constitute a large part of global plant biodiversity. Distribution of obligatory epiphytic bryophytes results from climate and local habitat conditions. The most important epiphytic bryophytes and at the same time poorly investigated and taxonomically problematic ones belong to the family Orthotrichaceae. Epiphytic mosses are also ideal organisms for species modelling, because of having no roots, they are highly dependent on external environmental conditions. For this purpose, we used the ecological niche modelling approach to define their potential distribution in China and adjacent areas and explore factors that shape this distribution. We used 617 occurrence records of 23 species from six genera within the Orthotrichaceae family. Our results suggest that the distribution of members of the Orthotrichaceae family is predominantly affected by bioclimatic variables, especially bio10 (mean temperature of the warmest quarter), bio15 (precipitation seasonality), bio18 (precipitation of the warmest quarter), bio19 (precipitation of the coldest quarter), bio9 (mean temperature of the driest quarter), and bio2 (mean diurnal range). However, the distribution of particular genera is ruled by a different set of those variables. The distribution of two genera (Leratia and Ulota) is also highly influenced by land cover (especially mixed/other trees), whereas human footprint shows a moderate contribution to models of three genera (Lewinskya, Orthotrichum, Nyholmiella). Based on the occupied climatic niche and distribution patterns, representatives of the studied family are divided into two groups. The 'western-montane group' is characterised by lower temperatures and lower precipitation whereas the 'eastern-lowland' group' by more humid and warmer conditions.

Insights into adaptive evolution of plastomes in Stipa L. (Poaceae).

BACKGROUND: The study presents results of research on the evolution of plastid genomes in Stipa L. which is a large genus of the Poaceae family, comprising species diverse in terms of geographic distribution, growing under highly variated habitat conditions. Complete plastome sequences of 43 taxa from Stipeae and Ampelodesmae tribes were analyzed for the variability of the coding regions against the background of phylogenetic relationships within the genus Stipa. The research hypothesis put forward in our research was that some of coding regions are affected by a selection pressure differentiated between individual phylogenetic lines of Stipa, potentially reducing the phylogenetic informativeness of these CDS. The study aimed to answer the question, which genes evolve in Stipa most rapidly and what kind of changes in the properties of encoded amino acids this entails. Another goal of this research was to find out whether individual genes are affected by positive selection and finally, whether selective pressure is uniform within the genus or does it vary between particular evolutionary lines within the genus. RESULTS: Results of our study proved the presence of selective pressure in 11 genes: ccsA, matK, ndhC, ndhF, ndhK, rbcL, rpoA rpoC1, rpoC2, rps8 and rps11. For the first time the effect of positive selection on the rps8, rps11, and ndhK genes was documented in grasses. The varied pace of evolution, different intensity and effects of selective pressure have been demonstrated between particular phylogenetic lines of the genus tested. CONCLUSIONS: Positive selection in plastid genome in Stipa mostly affects photosynthetic genes. The potential strongest adaptive pressure was observed in the rbcL gene, especially in the oldest evolutionary group comprising Central Asian high-mountain species: S. basiplumosa, S. klimesii, S. penicillata and S. purpurea, where adaptive pressure probably affected the amino acids directly related to the efficiency of CO2 assimilation.

Towards a better understanding of linear species distribution in river valleys: The abundance of river corridor plants is linked to soil exchangeable potassium and pH.

The phenomenon that some vascular plant species grow mainly or exclusively in the large river valleys of Central Europe constitutes a long-standing distribution puzzle. In our study, we focused on determining which physicochemical properties of soil affect the distribution of river corridor plant (RCP) species. Research that included RCP coverage, the physicochemical properties of soil as well as several topographic and spatial variables were conducted in 10 transects perpendicular to the San River (SE Poland). The sampled plots were located both in close proximity to the river, where the greatest number of RCP populations are concentrated, and along anthropogenic linear landscape elements which have proven to be important for RCP occurrence in areas located away from the riverbed. Spearman rank correlation matrices were constructed to observe the general relationships between particular variables and Boosted Regression Tree models were used for explaining RCP coverage. Our study indicated that in the case of plots located in proximity to the river, the expected coverage of RCP species was highest in plots characterized by a higher soil exchangeable potassium (K) content, as well as in those located closer to the San River and at lower altitudes. In plots situated along anthropogenic linear landscape elements, the expected coverage of RCPs was highest in plots with a high soil exchangeable K content and in those with a high soil pH. The analyses clearly showed that the physicochemical properties of soils indeed affect RCP species occurrence and they require soils with a high exchangeable K content and a high pH. Since these two soil parameters are closely related to soil fertility, and additionally K enhances root development, we suppose that both factors strengthen the competitiveness of RCPs in floodplain ecosystems.

Effect of Rudbeckia laciniata invasion on soil seed banks of different types of meadow communities.

In the last decades, biological invasions become the main driver of biodiversity loss. The changes can be noticed not only in the above-ground diversity but also in the underground, including seed banks of native vegetation. In this study, we focus on Rudbeckia laciniata, a species introduced to many European and Asian countries, to characterize its soil seed bank as well as to answer the question, how the species influenced soil seed banks of meadow plant communities in two types of habitats (fresh and wet), where traditional mowing was abandoned. Within the habitats, we conducted our study on a three-step scale of invasion, from full invasion, through the transition zone to the control zone, where no invasion of the species has been observed so far. The majority of the R. laciniata seeds were located in the surface layer of soil. We detected, that 47% (in fresh meadow) and 56% (wet meadow) of recorded species occurred only in a soil seed bank, and were absent in aboveground vegetation. Emergence of native plants from the soil seed bank is low due to rapid shading of the soil surface by R. laciniata seedlings. However, a short-term seed bank of the species gives hope that returning to regular mowing brings the desired results in its the elimination from vegetation, in a fairly short time.

Typification of five plant names described based on specimens collected by Józef Warszewicz in Central and South America.

Józef Warszewicz (1812-1864) was one of the first Polish naturalists to explore the flora of the tropical New World. During two expeditions to Central and South America (1844-1850 and 1850-1853) he collected and delivered to Europe up to twenty thousand plant specimens. To honour his service and his achievements in plant collections, different taxonomists described more than 100 taxa using the surname Warszewicz, for example in the genus name (Warszewiczia) and the species epithets (warszewiczii, warscewiczii, warszewicziana). Unfortunately, a large part of Warszewicz's collection of plant species deposited in the Berlin Herbarium (B), including many type specimens was destroyed during World War II. During digitisation of herbarium collections preserved in the Herbarium of the Jagiellonian University (KRA), we reviewed more than 650 herbarium sheets with plant specimens collected by Warszewicz and originating from his trips to Central and South America. In this paper, we present the typification of five names of species, described base on Warszewicz's plant material. We select lectotypes for Berberiswarszewiczii, Esenbeckiawarscewiczii, Psammisiaramiflora, Remijiainvolucrata and Rondeletiaorthoneura, and provide data on the presence of 17 specimens (isotypes) representing Esenbeckiacornuta, an extremely rare species, that to date is known only from the type locality in Peru. A list of all Warszewicz's specimens preserved at KRA herbarium is also presented. Additionally, in the result of the revision of syntypes of Berberismultiflora and Rondeletiareflexa we designated here the lectotypes for these taxa.

Resurrection of Stipatremula and taxonomy of the high-alpine species from the Stipapurpurea complex (Poaceae, Pooideae).

Stipapurpurea is a high-alpine species that occurs in cryophilous steppes, semi-deserts and stony slopes, from the Tian Shan and Pamirian Plateau through Qinghai-Xizang Plateau to the Himalayas and is characterised by a great morphological variability. During the revision of specimens of the taxon, we observed that the pattern of this variability is linked to the geographical distribution of the specimens. Numerical analyses (PCA and UPGMA) revealed three groups of OTUs corresponding to three morphotypes within the S.purpurea complex. A set of macro- and micromorphological characters, supported by a map of general distributional ranges, are presented to distinguish each of the three taxa within the complex and we reassess the status of Lasiagrostistremula described by Ruprecht in 1869. As a result, Stipatremula, S.purpurea and S.arenosa were distinguished within the complex. The intermediate characters of S.arenosa may suggest its putative hybrid origin (S.tremula × S.purpurea), whereas the presence of extremely long florets may be an expression of the gigas effect. We propose two new combinations (S.tremula and S.arenosa), describe a new nothospecies (S.×ladakhensis) that originated from hybridisation between S.klimesii and S.purpurea s.l. and designate the lectotype for Ptilagrostissemenovii. An identification key and detailed morphological description of species from the S.purpurea complex are also presented.

Evidence for extensive hybridisation and past introgression events in feather grasses using genome-wide SNP genotyping.

BACKGROUND: The proper identification of feather grasses in nature is often limited due to phenotypic variability and high morphological similarity between many species. Among plausible factors influencing this issue are hybridisation and introgression recently detected in the genus. Nonetheless, to date, only a bounded set of taxa have been investigated using integrative taxonomy combining morphological and molecular data. Here, we report the first large-scale study on five feather grass species across several hybrid zones in Russia and Central Asia. In total, 302 specimens were sampled in the field and classified based on the current descriptions of these taxa. They were then genotyped with high density genome-wide markers and measured based on a set of morphological characters to delimitate species and assess levels of hybridisation and introgression. Moreover, we tested species for past introgression and estimated divergence times between them. RESULTS: Our findings demonstrated that 250 specimens represent five distinct species: S. baicalensis, S. capillata, S. glareosa, S. grandis and S. krylovii. The remaining 52 individuals provided evidence for extensive hybridisation between S. capillata and S. baicalensis, S. capillata and S. krylovii, S. baicalensis and S. krylovii, as well as to a lesser extent between S. grandis and S. krylovii, S. grandis and S. baicalensis. We detected past reticulation events between S. baicalensis, S. krylovii, S. grandis and inferred that diversification within species S. capillata, S. baicalensis, S. krylovii and S. grandis started ca. 130-96 kya. In addition, the assessment of genetic population structure revealed signs of contemporary gene flow between populations across species from the section Leiostipa, despite significant geographical distances between some of them. Lastly, we concluded that only 5 out of 52 hybrid taxa were properly identified solely based on morphology. CONCLUSIONS: Our results support the hypothesis that hybridisation is an important mechanism driving evolution in Stipa. As an outcome, this phenomenon complicates identification of hybrid taxa in the field using morphological characters alone. Thus, integrative taxonomy seems to be the only reliable way to properly resolve the phylogenetic issue of Stipa. Moreover, we believe that feather grasses may be a suitable genus to study hybridisation and introgression events in nature.

Rubuskaznowskii (Rosaceae), a new bramble species from south-central Poland.

Based on field research in south-central Poland, supplemented with a review of herbarium materials, we identified a stable bramble biotype with a range large enough (190 km distance between the outermost stands) to be described as a new regional agamic species, Rubuskaznowskii sp.nov. It belongs to the series Subthyrsoidei(sect. Corylifolii). Although R.kaznowskii has a unique combination of features, it can be potentially mistaken for R.gothicus. It differs from the latter species in many aspects, including: pruinose primocanes, denser indumentum of the abaxial leaf surface, and more curved prickles on the petiole. R.kaznowskii has mainly been observed on rusty soils, in habitats of mixed coniferous and mixed broadleaf forests, usually in sunny places, along forest margins and roads, in clearings and roadside thickets.

Palaeoclimate has a major effect on the diversity of endemic species in the hotspot of mountain biodiversity in Tajikistan.

In a period of ongoing climate changes, identifying drivers of overall and endemic species diversity is a key element in constructing new ecological patterns and determining the main goals of conservation. Such studies are especially crucial if they concern biodiversity hotspot areas. In this study, we explore patterns and drivers of plant endemism (the proportion of endemic plant species to overall plant species richness; PE) in Tajikistan. We used three groups of climatic measures featuring the contemporary and glacial climates as well as climatic changes since the Last Glacial Maximum in the Pleistocene (LGM). To explore relationships between PE and climatic groups, and the most important climatic variables, we applied the Generalised Additive Model and regression trees method respectively. Glacial climate predicted PE variation the most (74.3%), followed by climate stability (55.4%) and current climate (62.4%). The most important variables represented change in precipitation of driest quarter, glacial mean annual temperature and current annual precipitation. LGM climate and its change to date have the greatest influence on contemporary PE patterns in Tajikistan, revealing the evolutionary dependencies between limited-range plants and past climate. Accordingly, annual temperature and precipitation regimes have been the most crucial drivers of PE since the LGM until today. The study revealed the dependence of the PE on a stabilized water-energy supply. The changing temperature and precipitations regimes during the ongoing climate warming may, therefore, increases the threat to geographically isolated cryophilous plants of Tajikistan, while their escape potential to suitable cold habitats is highly topographically limited.