Duration of Breastfeeding and Supportive Paternal Caregiving in Early Childhood and the Potential Mediating Function of Maternal Caregiving.

OBJECTIVE: Supportive paternal caregiving is influenced by contextual factors, including maternal caregiving behaviors. Although longer periods of breastfeeding have been found to be associated with higher levels of maternal supportive parenting, it remains unknown whether the benefits of breastfeeding also extend to fathers' supportive caregiving. This study tested the indirect relation between the duration of breastfeeding and paternal supportive parenting through maternal supportive parenting. METHODS: Participating families (N = 623) were from the Behavior Outlook Norwegian Developmental Study, a population-based longitudinal study in Southeast Norway. Path analysis was used to test associations between the duration of breastfeeding in the first year (parent report) and paternal supportive parenting (observed, 36 months), as potentially mediated by maternal supportive parenting (observed, 24 months). RESULTS: After controlling for sociodemographic and birth factors, a longer duration of breastfeeding was indirectly associated with higher levels of observed paternal supportive parenting through maternal supportive parenting. CONCLUSION: The current findings suggest that the longer breastfeeding duration during the first year of life (i.e., infancy) might have important implications for both maternal and paternal supportive parenting in toddlerhood.

Compensatory effects of maternal and paternal supportive parenting in early childhood on children's school-age adjustment.

Both maternal and paternal supportive parenting (i.e., sensitivity, warmth, stimulation, and engagement) across early childhood have been found to be associated with multiple domains of children's positive socioemotional functioning. However, few studies have considered how maternal and paternal supportive parenting may interact to impact child development. Thus, the present study assessed direct and moderated longitudinal relations between maternal and paternal supportive parenting in toddlerhood (24 and 36 months, respectively) and fathers' and teachers' reports of children's socioemotional and behavioral adjustment in first grade. Data were drawn from a large, sample of Norwegian parents and children (N = 455, 51% female, 49% male, 10% endorsed financial strain, 75% of fathers and 86% of mothers born in Norway). After controlling for child temperamental activity level and soothability in infancy, path analysis revealed that higher paternal supportive parenting was associated with fewer symptoms of father-reported child hyperactivity/impulsivity in first grade. In addition, a significant interaction between maternal and paternal supportive parenting was evident for three out of the four assessed outcomes (per both father- and teacher-reports): externalizing problems, hyperactivity/impulsivity symptoms, and social skills. Simple slope analyses revealed a negative relation between parental supportive parenting and children's externalizing (father-reported) and hyperactivity/impulsivity problems (father- and teacher-reported) when the child's other parent engaged in low levels of supportive parenting. Similarly, paternal supportive parenting was positively associated with children's social skills (father-report) when mothers engaged in low levels of supportive parenting. Results are discussed with implications for including both mothers and fathers in early childhood research, intervention, and social policy. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

Family concordance and gender differences in parent-child structured interaction at 12 months.

This observational study examined family concordance and gender differences in early parent-child interaction in the family supportive sociopolitical context of Norway. Mothers and fathers from 39 Norwegian families were observed on separate occasions with their 12-month-old children (20 girls and 19 boys). Data were recorded from observations using microsocial coding methodology based on social interaction learning theory. We found no within-family concordance between mothers' and fathers' behaviors with their child. The children's negative engagement with each parent was moderately correlated. For parents with boys, fathers were overall more positively engaged than mothers. Moreover, fathers of boys displayed more positive engagement than those of girls, whereas mothers of girls and boys displayed similar levels of positive engagement. In contrast to previous findings, mothers did not verbalize more than fathers. Girls were overall more positively engaged during interaction with both mothers and fathers than boys. Thus, in a sociopolitical context that facilitates early parent-child relationships and gender equality, there were few but noteworthy gender differences in parent-child interaction at 12 months.