RESUMO
Municipal solid waste (MSW) management poses a significant environmental challenge in municipalities across developing nations worldwide. Our studies were focused on characterizing the waste and analyzing the chemical properties of mixed waste fractions to assess their potential for waste-to-energy conversion. The objective of our study was to scrutinize the existing state of the MSW management system and gauge its waste generation rates. Specific ASTM methods were employed to carry out both physical and chemical characterizations. The outcomes reveal that the city generates a daily volume of 1155 tons of domestic solid waste (DSW), translating to a generation rate of 0.51 kg-1 capita-1 day-1. When analyzed by source, organic matter emerged as the predominant constituent, accounting for 73.74% of the waste, followed by combustible content waste at 15.17%. The moisture content of MSW ranged between 26 and 58% throughout the seasons, while volatile solids varied from 22.35 to 99.74%. Among the components screened, carbon and oxygen stood out as the dominant elements. The calorific values encompassed a broad range, ranging from 14.87 MJ kg-1 for leather waste to a substantial 25,629.27 MJ kg-1 for organic waste. To alleviate the escalating burden of increasing solid waste generation, alternative treatment approaches were recommended. These include composting, biomethane plants, the establishment of recycling facilities, and the enhancement of existing landfill sites to scientifically designed landfills. In summary, the findings from this study provide valuable insights for regulatory bodies and municipal authorities. These insights can guide the formulation of policies concerning waste sampling, characterization, segregation, and the implementation of education and awareness campaigns.
RESUMO
BACKGROUND: Amenorrhoea is absence of menstruation. It could be primary, if menstruation has not occurred by the age of 16 years in the presence of normal growth and secondary sexual characters or by the age of 14 years in the absence of secondary sexual characters. It is secondary if periods have not occurred for six months. This study was done with the objective to determine the frequency of etiologic causes of primary amenorrhoea. STUDY DESIGN: Cross-sectional descriptive study. METHODS: The study was conducted in the department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology Sheikh Khalifha Bin Zyed Al Nahyan /Combined Military Hospital Muzaffarabad Azad Jammu Kashmir (SKBZ/CMH MZD AJK) from December 2014 to November 2017. Women with primary amenorrhoea reported and managed in the hospital are included in the study. Cases were analysed according to clinical profile, development of secondary sexual characteristics, physical examination, pelvic and rectal examination, hormonal profile, pelvic ultrasound, magnetic resonance imaging and cytogenetic study including karyotyping.. RESULTS: Three most common causes of primary amenorrhoea were Mullerian anomalies (36.7%) followed by gonadal dysgenesis (33.3%), hypothalamic causes (23.3%) and Pituitary causes (6.7%). There were 03 cases of polycystic ovarian syndrome and 02 cases of hyperprolactinemia. CONCLUSIONS: The most common etiological factor leading to primary amenorrhoea is Mullerian anomalies followed by gonadal dysgenesis. Genetic and environmental factors could also play role in the causes of primary amenorrhoea.
