Electron Probe for Unequivocal Surface Characterization and Surface Defect Engineering of Energy Materials. Example of BaTiO3.

Surface properties of crystalline solids and the related defect disorder of the surface layer have a critical effect on the reactivity and performance of materials, including energy materials. It is shown here that a high-temperature electron probe enables unequivocal surface characterization of energy oxide materials in a gas/solid equilibrium, including the affinity-related charge transfer and segregation-affected defect disorder. As an example, this work considers in situ surface monitoring of barium titanate at elevated temperatures during oxidation to determine a quantity (described as work function) that is reflective of the chemical potential of electrons during gas/solid reactions. The probe enables insight into local surface structures and opens up new fields of surface defect chemistry and surface defect engineering of materials for clean energy conversion.

Electrical Conductivity, Thermoelectric Power, and Equilibration Kinetics of Nb-Doped TiO2.

This work considers the equilibration kinetics of Nb-doped TiO2 single crystal (0.066 atom % Nb) during oxidation and reduction within a wide range of temperature (1073-1298 K) and oxygen activity (10(-14)-10(5) Pa). The associated semiconducting properties were determined using simultaneous measurements of both electrical conductivity and thermoelectric power. It is shown that the chemical diffusion coefficient in the strongly reducing regime, p(O2) < 10(-5) Pa, is 4 orders of magnitude larger than that in the reducing and oxidizing regimes, 10 Pa < p(O2) < 22 kPa. The derived theoretical model considers the gas/solid kinetics for the TiO2/O2 system in terms of two diffusion regimes: the fast regime related to fast defects (oxygen vacancies and titanium interstitials) and leading to quasi-equilibrium, and the slow regime associated with slow defects (titanium vacancies) resulting in the gas/solid equilibrium. It has been shown that incorporation of donor-type elements, such as niobium, and imposition of oxygen activity above a certain critical value, results in a substantial reduction in the concentration of high mobility defects and leads to slowing down the equilibration kinetics. In consequence, the fast kinetic regime is not observed. Comparison of the kinetic data for Nb-doped TiO2 single crystal (this work) and polycrystalline Nb-doped TiO2 (reported before) indicates that the gas/solid kinetics for the polycrystalline specimen at higher oxygen activities is rate controlled by the transport of oxygen within individual grains.

Defect chemistry and defect engineering of TiO2-based semiconductors for solar energy conversion.

This tutorial review considers defect chemistry of TiO2 and its solid solutions as well as defect-related properties associated with solar-to-chemical energy conversion, such as Fermi level, bandgap, charge transport and surface active sites. Defect disorder is discussed in terms of defect reactions and the related charge compensation. Defect equilibria are used in derivation of defect diagrams showing the effect of oxygen activity and temperature on the concentration of both ionic and electronic defects. These defect diagrams may be used for imposition of desired semiconducting properties that are needed to maximize the performance of TiO2-based photoelectrodes for the generation of solar hydrogen fuel using photo electrochemical cells (PECs) and photocatalysts for water purification. The performance of the TiO2-based semiconductors is considered in terms of the key performance-related properties (KPPs) that are defect related. It is shown that defect engineering may be applied for optimization of the KPPs in order to achieve optimum performance.

Photocatalytic Properties of TiO2: Evidence of the Key Role of Surface Active Sites in Water Oxidation.

Photocatalytic activity of oxide semiconductors is commonly considered in terms of the effect of the band gap on the light-induced performance. The present work considers a combined effect of several key performance-related properties (KPPs) on photocatalytic activity of TiO2 (rutile), including the chemical potential of electrons (Fermi level), the concentration of surface active sites, and charge transport, in addition to the band gap. The KPPs have been modified using defect engineering. This approach led to imposition of different defect disorders and the associated KPPs, which are defect-related. This work shows, for the first time, a competitive influence of different KPPs on photocatalytic activity that was tested using oxidation of methylene blue (MB). It is shown that the increase of oxygen activity in the TiO2 lattice from 10(-12) Pa to 10(5) Pa results in (i) increase in the band gap from 2.42 to 2.91 eV (direct transitions) or 2.88 to 3 eV (indirect transitions), (ii) increase in the population of surface active sites, (iii) decrease of the Fermi level, and (iv) decrease of the charge transport. It is shown that the observed changes in the photocatalytic activity are determined by two dominant KPPs: the concentration of active surface sites and the Fermi level, while the band gap and charge transport have a minor effect on the photocatalytic performance. The effect of the defect-related properties on photoreactivity of TiO2 with water is considered in terms of a theoretical model offering molecular-level insight into the process.

Equilibration Kinetics and Chemical Diffusion of Indium-Doped TiO2.

The present work reports the gas/solid equilibration kinetics for In-doped TiO2 (0.4 atom % In) at elevated temperatures (1023-1273 K) in the gas phase of controlled oxygen activity [10(-13) Pa < p(O2) < 10(5) Pa]. Thus, the determined chemical diffusion coefficient is considered in terms of a microdiffusion coefficient that is reflective of the transport kinetics within very narrow ranges of oxygen activities. In analogy to pure TiO2, the chemical diffusion coefficient for In-doped TiO2 exhibits a maximum at the n-p transition point. The activation energy of the chemical diffusion exhibits a decrease with temperature from 200 kJ/mol at 1023 K to an insignificant value at 1273 K. This effect is reflective of a segregation-induced electrical potential barrier blocking the transport of defects. The absolute value of the chemical diffusion coefficient for In-doped TiO2 is larger from that of pure TiO2 by a factor of approximately 10. The effect of indium on the diffusion rate is considered in terms of the associated concentration of oxygen vacancies, which are formed in order to satisfy the charge neutrality for In-doped TiO2.

Electrical Properties and Defect Chemistry of In-Doped TiO2 in Terms of the Jonker Formalism.

The present work considers the semiconducting properties of In-doped TiO2 in terms of the Jonker formalism applied for both electrical conductivity and thermoelectric power data determined simultaneously in equilibrium with the gas phase of controlled oxygen activity. It is shown that the electrical properties of In-doped TiO2 annealed in oxidizing conditions [p(O2) > 10 Pa] can be described by the Jonker formalism very well. However, annealing of In-doped TiO2 in strongly reducing conditions [p(O2) < 10(-10) Pa], imposed by the gas phase involving hydrogen, results in a deviation of the experimental data from the Jonker's theoretical model derived for the Maxwell-Boltzmann statistics. This departure is considered in terms of the effect of hydrogen on the formation of structural domains, which are expected to be entirely different from those of oxidized TiO2 in terms of its electronic properties. It is argued that In-doped TiO2 annealed in the gas phase involving hydrogen exhibits a high concentration of donor-type ionic defects, which lead to the formation of high concentration of electrons. The related semiconducting properties are inconsistent with the model of classical semiconductor where the electrons are described by the Maxwell-Boltzmann statistics. It is concluded that strong interactions within the electron gas lead, in consequence, to the behavior resembling correlated transport of electrons. The obtained results suggest that indium incorporation into the rutile structure of TiO2 results in the formation of structural properties that exhibit extraordinary charge transport.

Back pain in mothers of cerebral palsied children.

BACKGROUND: Cerebral palsy (CP) leads to varying degrees of movement restrictions, imposing on the parents (especially mothers) a number of additional responsibilities. The burden of long-term care for a disabled child can lead to severe pain in various locations and of various intensity. Therefore, it is important to identify their risk factors and provide training for parents of CP children to educate them how to offer care not only to aid rehabilitation of their child, but also to avoid hazards to their own health. The aim of this study was to evaluate the prevalence of back pain and its underlying causes in mothers of children with cerebral palsy. MATERIAL AND METHODS: The study enrolled 179 mothers of CP children aged 3-18 years. The intensity, frequency and functional consequences of the pain were described according to the criteria formulated by Jackson and Moskowitz. The children's functional status was assessed on the basis of their medical records, the GMFCS (Gross Motor Function Classification System) scale and an interview with their mothers. Pain intensity in the mother was compared with the functional status of the child and the level of his/her independence as well as other factors related to the daily care of a child with cerebral palsy. The nonparametric chi-square (x2) test was used for the statistical analyses, with the level of significance at p <0.05. RESULTS: Most of the mothers caring for a CP child on a daily basis suffered from back pain of various location and intensity. The intensity of the pain was determined by the child's locomotor skills and independence level, the necessity of lifting the child several times a day, the number of additional tasks performed by the mother and the age and body weight of the child. At the same time, pain intensity was independent of maternal age, the possibility of having a replacement caregiver and (lack of) prior instruction on appropriate behaviours in their daily care for the disabled child. CONCLUSIONS: 1. Long-term daily care of children with cerebral palsy promotes the development of back pain in their mothers. 2. The incidence and intensity of pain depends primarily on the child's functional status and independence level, body weight, age, the need for repeatedly lifting the disabled child throughout the day and the number of additional tasks performed by the mother.

Ergonomic determinants of back pain in physiotherapists involved in paediatric neurorehabilitation.

BACKGROUND: Work-related musculoskeletal disorders in physiotherapists working with children are due to the failure to apply the principles of ergonomics in their daily practice, which is often caused by the necessity of working in forced positions. Health hazards are even bigger because of the disproportion of body weight and height between the patient and the therapist. The aim of the study was to evaluate positions of the spine at work among physiotherapists involved in child neurorehabilitation and their impact on the occurrence of back pain. MATERIAL AND METHODS: The study enrolled 84 physiotherapists between the ages of 28-55 years involved in child neurorehabilitation whose seniority in the profession ranged from 2 to 33 years. The physiotherapists were interviewed about their work and its negative consequences. The 6-degree Jackson and Moskowitz scale was used to determine the level of pain intensity. Three-dimensional positions of the spine were recorded under natural working conditions using a SonoSens Monitor 8 ultrasonic measuring system. The recorded data was compared with the so-called "profile for ergonomic operation of the spine". The idea behind the study was to find the relation between pain intensity, duration and location on the one hand, and working positions of the spine and other data from the interview on the other. The statistical analysis was based on Spearman's rank correlation coefficient, analysis of variance with single classification, post hoc analysis (Tukey test) and the chi-square test (%2). The level of statistical significance was established at p < 0.05. RESULTS: All subjects reported 1-4° pain. The intensity of pain increased with age, profession seniority, duration of the history of pain and duration of a sense of fatigue persisting after work. Pain intensity correlated with the length of time the spine was placed in unergonomic positions - especially in excessive lateral flexion in the thoracic segment and rotation in the cervical, thoracic and lumbar segments. CONCLUSIONS: 1. Positions of the spine in physiotherapists involved in neurorehabilitation of children are unergonomic and back pain is common in these therapists. 2 There is a correlation between working techniques and the prevalence of pain in physiotherapists.

Amphoteric oxide semiconductors for energy conversion devices: a tutorial review.

In this tutorial review, we discuss the defect chemistry of selected amphoteric oxide semiconductors in conjunction with their significant impact on the development of renewable and sustainable solid state energy conversion devices. The effect of electronic defect disorders in semiconductors appears to control the overall performance of several solid-state ionic devices that include oxide ion conducting solid oxide fuel cells (O-SOFCs), proton conducting solid oxide fuel cells (H-SOFCs), batteries, solar cells, and chemical (gas) sensors. Thus, the present study aims to assess the advances made in typical n- and p-type metal oxide semiconductors with respect to their use in ionic devices. The present paper briefly outlines the key challenges in the development of n- and p-type materials for various applications and also tries to present the state-of-the-art of defect disorders in technologically related semiconductors such as TiO(2), and perovskite-like and fluorite-type structure metal oxides.

Changes of kinematics parameters of pelvis during walking under the influence of means facilitates treatment of cerebral palsied children.

BACKGROUND: Physiological human gait is characterized by changes of foot and knee angle that make the gait efficient and not require excessive energy expenditure. In cerebral palsied children, the foot-knee relationship is disturbed by pathological synergies. Therefore, ways to improve this situation are sought. The aim of the study was to verify whether and how well the use of botulinum toxin or inhibitive casts alters the behaviour of the foot-knee complex in cerebral palsy gait. MATERIAL AND METHODS: The study involved 34 hemiparetic children with cerebral palsy aged 7-14 years who were able to walk unassisted. Neurodevelopmental treatment according to the NDT-Bobath method was given to all the children. Two groups were formed. In the first group of 16 children, inhibitive castings were used. The second group of 18 children received Btx-A injections. Gait analysis was performed at baseline and one month after administering these additional treatments. The CMS-HS ultrasonic system (Zebris) was used for three dimensional gait analysis. RESULTS: Apart from the pattern asymmetry characteristic of a hemiplegic gait, various pronounced abnormalities of the foot-knee complex were observed. Following treatment, gait symmetry improved in both groups as did the position of the hemiparetic foot in the mid-support phase. In the inhibitive casting groups, similar improvements were also observed in the initial contact phase. In the knee, greater improvement in knee was noted in the Btx-A group. CONCLUSIONS: Btx-A injections or inhibitive casts improve gait parameters in cerebral palsied children. This improvement is individual and seen in different stages of the support phase, but of similar magnitude following the use of either treatment. Achieving simultaneous improvement in the knee and foot is difficult.

Effect of indium segregation on the surface versus bulk chemistry for indium-doped TiO2.

This work reports the effect of indium segregation on the surface versus bulk composition of indium (In)-doped TiO(2). The studies are performed using proton-induced X-ray emission (PIXE), secondary-ion mass spectrometry (SIMS), X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), and Rutherford backscattering spectroscopy (RBS). The results of XPS analysis indicate that annealing of In-doped TiO(2) containing 0.3 atom % In at 1273 K in the gas phase of controlled oxygen activity [p(O(2)) = 75 kPa and 10 Pa] results in a surface enrichment of 2.95 and 2.61 atom % In, respectively. The obtained segregation data are considered in terms of the transport of indium ions from its titanium sites in the bulk phase to the surface where these ions are incorporated into interstitial sites. The effect of oxygen activity on the segregation-induced surface enrichment is considered in terms of the formation of a low-dimensional surface structure and a sublayer, which are charged negatively. The latter is formed as a result of strong interactions between titanium vacancies and interstitial indium ions, leading to the formation of defect complexes. The data obtained in this work may be used for engineering of TiO(2)-based semiconductors with enhanced performance in solar energy conversion.

Foot and Knee Behaviour During Gait in Response to the Use of Additional Means of Treatment in Cerebral Palsied Children

BACKGROUND: Physiological human gait is characterized by tree-dimensional pelvis movements, which make that gait is smooth and does not require excessive energy expenditure. In children with cerebral palsy determinants of the pelvis may be affected, mainly due to pathological afferent synergisms. Therefore many specialists is looking for ways to improve this situation. The aim of this study was to verify whether the use of botulinium toxin or inhibitive casts affects the kinematic parameters of the pelvis during the gait of children with hemiparetic form of cerebral palsy. MATERIAL AND METHODS: The study involved 34 hemiparetic children with cerebral palsy aged 7-14 years who reached the capacity of walking. All were improving by neurodevelop-mental treatment according to NDT-Bobath method. Two groups were created. In the first group inhibiting casting was used in 16 children. In the second group botulinium toxin was injected in 18 children. Gait analysis was performed before and after using those type of treatment. Ultrasonic CMS-HS system (Zebris) was used for three dimensional gait analysis. RESULTS: Despite of the characteristic for hemiplegic gait pattern asymmetry, various ab-normalities of pelvis kinematic parameters were observed. Gait symmetry was improved aafter the treatment. Using inhibiting casts also improved kinematic parameters of the pelvis, especially in those children who are found deficit of decreasing and rotation of the pelvis. CONCLUSIONS: 1) The use of Btx-A or inhibitive casts results in improving temporal- spatial parameters of gait of cerebral palsied children with hemiparesis. 2) The improvement of kinematic pelvis parameters are obtained through the use of inhibitive casts, while the use of Btx-A does not have a significant impact on them.

Health status of adults treated for 1st degree scoliosis at school age.

BACKGROUND: Abnormal body alignment may lead to the development of spinal overload syndromes, nerve root irritation, pain, impaired ventilation, and compromise of exercise capacity. OBJECTIVE: The aim of the study was to find out whether low degree scoliosis impairs breathing, reduces exercise capacity and produces back pain over time. MATERIAL AND METHODS: Respiratory function, exercise capacity (PWC170) and pain intensity (Jackson and Moskowitz regimen) were assessed in 39 adults aged 19 to 38 years diagnosed with low degree scoliosis (10-280) several years ago. A group of 43 controls with no scoliosis in adolescence was also examined. RESULTS: There was no progression of the curvature after the treatment in the scoliosis group. Spirometric parameters in this group were slightly lower than in the controls, although there was no evidence of the restrictive type of respiratory disorder, which was found in only 5.1% patients. PWC170 test results were significantly lower (by about 20%) than in controls, and 84.6% of the subjects reported intermittent, occasional, or frequent pain, mostly lumbar and associated with the work performed. In 12.8% of cases, the pain interfered with breathing. In about half of the group, pain occurred after exertion and caused limitation of activity, while in the remaining subjects it did not affect daily activities. CONCLUSIONS: 1) low degree scoliosis generally did not cause restrictive impairment of ventilation; 2) adults with established low degree scoliosis demonstrated impaired exercise capacity, in the form of reduced PWC170 scores; 3) the presence of low degree scoliosis at school age was associated with back pain in adulthood.

Professional experience and ergonomic aspects of midwives' work.

OBJECTIVES: The most frequent manner of attending childbirth imposes on midwives assuming poor body position affecting the musculoskeletal system. Long professional experience does not mitigate the negative effects. The adopted movement habit, as well as the type, number and frequency of actions influence the body posture. The aim of the study was to identify ergonomic threats of basic occupational midwives activities and how particular spinal segments arrangements while attending childbirth using the same technique in senior midwives differ from those of junior ones. It was also checked whether pain influences the working position assumed by midwives. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Examinations were conducted in 95 midwives aged 21-50 (X = 29.25 ± 9.34): 51 graduates of BSc midwifery who worked 680 h in delivery rooms during obligatory practical classes and apprenticeship and 44 senior midwives with professional experience of 7-27 years (X = 14.84 ± 5.98). The study was threefold. The spinal alignment while performing work activities associated with attending childbirth was assessed using the OWAS system and the SonoSens Monitor, the center of gravity projection on basal plane--using the AccuGait AMTI stabilometric platform. The measurements were taken during a simulation of attending childbirth (on examination model). A survey was conducted aimed at identifying spinal pain. RESULTS: Midwives' working postures require unnatural body alignments. Postural instability in the working position and no maximal usage of basal plane were observed. The work overload may afflict the musculoskeletal system, which was confirmed by different pain discomforts in 67.3% of the examinees. CONCLUSIONS: Spinal alignment while attending childbirth is individually differentiated and in every case non-ergonomic. Identifying explicitly spinal overloads is difficult, but the most prevalent ones affect lumbar and cervical regions altogether. Spinal pain is frequently noted, both in junior and senior midwives, and is characteristic for midwives working in maximal movement ranges.

Neuropathological aspects of conservative treatment of scoliosis. A theoretical view point.

An upright body posture cannot be maintained passively for reasons including a high location of the centre of gravity (COG) and a small support area. Proper alignment of body parts is maintained automatically, tending towards a pattern encoded in the CNS. A particularly important role in posture regulation is played by the short muscles of the back, which respond to being stretched with a contraction. During the early phase of scoliosis, the CNS automatically corrects abnormalities, but over time habituation occurs and the CNS treats them as something normal. Any attempt to restore proper body alignment is treated as an error and CNS automatically restores this abnormal pattern. With a prolonged deviation in body part alignment, CNS treats it as a defect and runs compensatory mechanisms to restore the balance of the body as a whole. Balance is ensured by postural compensation, but this does not restore proper body part alignment. In the treatment of scoliosis, it is important both to slow down progression and to prevent the development of abnormal postural habits, which are part of a vicious circle even without progression. Secondary prevention is therefore needed in all patients. Passive observation limits the possibilities for prevention and contradicts the principle of early implementation of rehabilitation. Depending on the size of the angle of curvature, recommended treatments of scoliosis comprise observation, corset bracing, and surgery. Physiotherapy is often treated as an unconventional and ineffective treatment. Often, the biggest problem is transferring the resulting correction to automatic maintenance of a correct posture in the vertical position. The aim of this paper was to discuss the conservative treatment of scoliosis with regard to difficulties maintaining the correct alignment of the body parts in the vertical position that accompany scoliosis.

Some possibilities of correction and compensation in body posture regulation among children and adolescents with low degree scoliosis.

BACKGROUND: Postural alignments, secondary curves of spine and tendency to unequal body weight distribution are the compensatory mechanisms in scoliosis, eventually leading to disturbances in the regulation of body posture. The pathological pattern of incorrect posture, evokes a vicious circle of causes and effects, which probably includes alterations in body weight distribution to both feet. OBJECTIVE: To examine the role of equal weight loading of both feet in posture regulation among children and adolescents with low-degree scoliosis. METHODS: A total of 115 participants, aged 7-19 years, were divided into three groups: low degree scoliosis (10-26° Cobb; n = 56), scoliotic posture (5-9°; n = 29), and without lateral spine curvature (n = 30). Three measurements of body arrangement and the weight distribution on feet were simultaneously taken using the photogrammetry and the podographic platform: in a free standing position, while attempt to correct body arrangement and with equal loading of both feet. RESULTS: Unequal weight distribution was observed in free standing position in patients with scoliosis. Attempts to correct body arrangement worsened existing disproportion, especially in the left-side curvatures. Equal feet loading lead to the body disarrangement, even among non - scoliotic subjects. CONCLUSIONS: In subjects with low degree scoliosis the compensatory changes in the spatial arrangement of the body are usually accompanied by asymmetric distribution of foot pressure and the active attempt to correct the curvature enhances this asymmetry. Attempts to maintain symmetrical distribution of body weight result in significant deterioration of the posturometric parameters even in non-scoliotic subjects.

The effect of high tone power therapy on gait range in patients with chronic lower limb ischaemia.

BACKGROUND: Pain-related abnormalities of the economy of walking are the most important factor adversely affecting overall physical activity of patients with chronic lower limb ischaemia. These patients are routinely managed conservatively, with the aim of improving pain-free claudication distance. The aim of this study was to examine the impact of HiToP on the functional status of the lower limbs in such patients and look for possible flow dynamics correlates in peripheral microcirculation in the lower limbs. MATERIAL AND METHODS: The study involved 68 patients aged 40-70 years, who were randomly assigned to Group A (experimental) and Group B (control). Study procedures included a treadmill test to determine the claudication distance and the measurement of blood flow in lower limb peripheral microcirculation using laser Doppler flowmetry. The intensity of lower limb pain was also determined. Patients from the experimental group were subjected to a series of HiToP sessions. The control group received mock HiToP (placebo). RESULTS: The claudication distance and maximum walking distance were significantly prolonged only in the HiToP group. With regard to microcirculation flow dynamics, only mean flow values increased substantially, but this was again only observed in the group treated with HiToP. CONCLUSIONS: HiToP makes it possible to improve lower limb function, as evidenced primarily by improved claudication distance, maximum walking distance and improved blood flow parameters in cutaneous microcirculation.

Body posture and syndromes of back pain.

BACKGROUND: The effects of faulty postures include disturbances of the symmetric distribution of compressive and tensile forces acting on both sides of the body axis and the emergence of harmful shear forces. The torques of antigravity muscles also change unfavourably. This may lead to the development of a repetitive strain syndrome, stenosis of intervertebral foramina, compression of nerve roots and back pain. The development of back pain syndromes is significantly affected by the performance of various work-related tasks in non-ergonomic positions. The aim of the study was to investigate the association between back pain syndromes and the quality of body posture, especially in the context of work ergonomics. MATERIAL AND METHODS: The study enrolled 125 persons: 39 adults with a childhood history of scoliosis, 39 midwives, and 47 physiotherapists. Body posture was assessed in all participants. In midwives and physiotherapists, body position during the performance of work-related tasks was also evaluated. The frequency and severity of pain was assessed with the Jackson-Moskowitz measure. RESULTS: The study revealed that over 80% of the participants suffered from spinal pain. In most cases, the pain was intermittent and was felt in the lumbar spine. The occurrence of pain among midwives and physiotherapists was not directly dependent on the predominant type of abnormal spinal position assumed during the performance of occupational tasks or the quality of body posture. The complaint was also reported by ca. 85% of persons with a history of scoliosis. CONCLUSIONS: An incorrect body posture (especially scoliosis) and performance of work-related tasks in non-ergonomic positions increase the probability of back pain.

Various attitudes to the use of corrective exercises in conservative treatment of scoliosis.

In acquired scoliosis, the degree of the curve is initially low and its type becomes apparent only after it has progressed. The characteristics of scoliosis include an abnormal spatial arrangement of individual body segments, which the central nervous system (CNS) interprets as a defect and automatically launches compensatory mechanisms. Neglecting low-degree scoliosis poses a two-fold danger. It usually leads to the development of structural changes, while the child gets used to the abnormal body arrangement, thus reinforcing the poor postural habits. The basic aim of early rehabilitation is to manage the compensatory mechanisms and prevent the development of adverse secondary changes, rehabilitation in scoliosis being no exception.Some cases of scoliosis require surgery. The point is to minimise the changes resulting from the progression of scoliosis. The role of corrective exercises seems to be significant here. However, views on the usefulness of such exercises are sometimes extremely varied, even though both favourable and sceptical opinions are not fully supported by the literature. However, a number of reports indicate that corrective exercises are useful.
The selection and of corrective exercises and how they should be performed are another question. A number of methods of conservative treatment of scoliosis have been devised. Currently, none of them is considered a comprehensive regimen since each patient requires an individual approach. The most difficult aspect is to ensure that local correction translates to the automatic maintenance of the corrected body posture in a standing position. This is facilitated by corrective exercises supported with biofeedback.
The aim of this paper is to elucidate this complex issue that often leads to divergent and improper attitudes to the conservative treatment of scoliosis.

Telereceptive and proprioceptive control of balance vs. body stability in elderly people.

BACKGROUND: Maintaining functional fitness is an important problem in elderly people. Effective balance control is one of its main aspects. Evaluation and diagnosis of the weakest link in balance control (especially in this age group) facilitates appropriate prevention and rehabilitation. The goal of this study was to determine the role of the optic teleceptor and proprioception in maintaining body stability of elderly people. MATERIAL AND METHODS: Balance control effectiveness and body stability was examined in 43 elderly people aged 65 and over by exposure to changing stimuli affecting tele- and proprioception. The participants were given false suggestions as to the vertical and horizontal planes of reference, and the position of the base was changed in different directions. Stabilographic parameters were acquired using an AccuGait platform. The results were compared with a control group of 53 healthy people under 30 years old. All study data were subjected to a statistical analysis. RESULTS: Proprioceptive impulsation coming from the base was the key factor in body balance control. The results show a higher risk of falls in elderly people, especially during backwards inclination. CONCLUSIONS: Changing spatial points of reference and position of the base activate body balance regulation mechanisms. The efficiency of these mechanisms in maintaining body stability is lower among elderly people, which indicates a need to implement appropriate prophylactic programmes in this age group.