Protocol for isolation of melanopsin and rhodopsin in the human eye using silent substitution.

Melanopsin-mediated visual and non-visual functions are difficult to study in vivo. To isolate melanopsin responses, non-standard light stimulation instruments are required, with at least as many primaries as photoreceptor classes in the eye. In this protocol, we describe the physical light calibrations of the display instrumentation, control of stimulus artefacts, and correction of individual between-eye differences in human observers. The protocol achieves complete photoreceptor silent substitution in psychophysical, pupillometry, and electroretinographic experiments for probing melanopsin, rod, and cone function. For complete details on the use and execution of this protocol, please refer to Uprety et al. (2022).1.

Enantioselective Catalytic Aldol Reactions in the Presence of Knoevenagel Nucleophiles: A Chemoselective Switch Optimized in Deep Eutectic Solvents Using Mechanochemistry.

In the presence of different nucleophilic Knoevenagel competitors, cyclic and acyclic ketones have been shown to undergo highly chemoselective aldol reactions with aldehydes. In doing so, the substrate breadth for this emerging methodology has been significantly broadened. The method is also no longer beholden to proline-based catalyst templates, e.g., commercially available O-t-Bu-L-threonine is advantageous for acyclic ketones. The key insight was to exploit water-based mediums under conventional (in-water) and non-conventional (deep eutectic solvents) conditions. With few exceptions, high aldol-to-Knoevenagel chemoselectivity (>10:1) and good product profiles (yield, dr, and ee) were observed, but only in DESs (deep eutectic solvents) in conjunction with ball milling did short reaction times occur.

A five-primary Maxwellian-view display for independent control of melanopsin, rhodopsin, and three-cone opsins on a fine spatial scale.

Independent spatiotemporal control of the stimulation of the five photoreceptor classes requires a display with as many primary lights to probe their isolated spatial and temporal responses. No such system exists with suitable performance properties. We present a system to construct a five-primary display from commercially available three-primary digital light processing projectors. It optimizes the set of five primary lights required to maximize the achievable contrast of a single photoreceptor class in a silent substitution protocol, including where the background chromaticity is first specified. From these chosen five primaries, we describe a method to convert complex three-primary (RGB) images to five-primary representations with complete specification of the photoreceptor excitations at each pixel. Key to enabling this multiple display system with a single HDMI connection is a novel control protocol implemented in a deterministic field-programmable gate array controller that splits the data into five video streams to allow nearly synchronous presentation of primary image data through multiple displays. Each pixel is controlled over 9.5 bits for each primary over a single frame for measurement of threshold-level vision. In addition to a large contrast gamut, the Maxwellian view offers high retinal illumination to support the investigation of five opsin-based responses to complex spatiotemporal images with a truly silent substitution protocol, while avoiding the confounding effects of uncontrolled photoreceptor excitations as occurs in four-primary systems. The customizable primaries facilitate this display translation to species with different photoreceptor spectral responses, and the optics are designed for integration into microscopes for use as a stimulus generator in physiological experiments.

Beyond Chemoselectivity: Catalytic Site-Selective Aldolization of Diketones and Exploitation for Enantioselective Alzheimer's Drug Candidate Synthesis.

Site selectivity, differentiating instances of the same functional group type on one substrate, represents a forward-looking theme within chemistry: reduced dependence on protection/deprotection protocols for increased overall yield and step-efficiency. Despite these potential benefits and the expanded tactical advantages afforded to synthetic design, site selectivity remains elusive and especially so for ketone-based substrates. Herein, site-selective intermolecular mono-aldolization has been demonstrated for an array of prochiral 4-keto-substituted cyclohexanones with concomitant regio-, diastereo-, and enantiocontrol. Importantly, the aldol products allow rapid access to molecularly complex ketolactones or keto-1,3-diols, respectively containing three and four stereogenic centers. The reaction conditions are of immediate practical value and general enough to be applicable to other reaction types. These findings are applied in the first enantioselective, formal, synthesis of a leading Alzheimer's research drug, a γ-secretase modulator (GSM), in the highest known yield.

An investigation of the observed, but counter-intuitive, stereoselectivity noted during chiral amine synthesis via N-chiral-ketimines.

The default explanation for good to high diastereomeric excess when reducing N-chiral imines possessing only mediocre cis/trans-imine ratios (>15% cis-imine) has invariably been in situ cis-to-trans isomerization before reduction; but until now no study unequivocally supported this conclusion. The present study co-examines an alternative hypothesis, namely that some classes of cis-imines may hold conformations that erode the inherent facial bias of the chiral auxiliary, providing more of the trans-imine reduction product than would otherwise be expected. The ensuing experimental and computational (DFT) results favor the former, pre-existing, explanation.

Chiral picolylamines for Michael and aldol reactions: probing substrate boundaries.

Here we report on inroads concerning increased substrate breadth via the picolylamine organocatalyst template, a vicinal chiral diamine based on a pyridine-primary amine motif. The addition of cyclohexanone to ß-nitrostyrene has many catalyst solutions, but cyclopentanone and isobutyraldehyde additions continue to be challenging. PicAm-3 (10 mol%) readily allows the Michael addition of cyclopentanone or isobutyraldehyde (5.0 equiv.) to ß-nitrostyrene derivatives. By contrast, PicAm-1 (7.0 mol%) is optimal for catalyzing the aldol reaction of cyclohexanone or cycloheptanone (3.3 equiv.) with aromatic aldehydes. Eighteen products are reported and for each reaction type new products are reported (4b-d, 9c). Very good yields and stereoselectivities are generally noted. The reactions, which require an acid additive, proceed via a transient chiral enamine and a mechanistic case is put forth for a bifunctional catalysis model.

Noncovalent bifunctional organocatalysts: powerful tools for contiguous quaternary-tertiary stereogenic carbon formation, scope, and origin of enantioselectivity.

Relying on the assembly of commercially available catalyst building blocks, highly stereocontrolled quaternary carbon (all carbon substituted) formation has been achieved with unmatched substrate diversity. For example, the in situ assembly of a tricomponent catalyst system allows α-branched aldehyde addition to nitroalkene or maleimide electrophiles (Michael products), while addition to an α-iminoester affords Mannich reaction products. Very good yields are observed and for fifteen of the eighteen examples 96-99 % ee is observed. Using racemic α-branched aldehydes, two contiguous (quaternary-tertiary) stereogenic centers can be formed in high diastereo- and enantiomeric excess (eight examples) via an efficient in situ dynamic kinetic resolution, solving a known shortcoming for maleimide electrophiles in particular. The method is of practical value, requiring only 1.2 equiv of the aldehyde, a 5.0 mol % loading of each catalyst component, for example, O-tBu-L-threonine (O-tBu-L-Thr), sulfamide, DMAP or O-tBu-L-Thr, KOH, and room temperature reactions. As a highlight, the first demonstration of ethylisovaleraldehyde (7) addition is disclosed, providing the most congested quaternary stereogenic carbon containing succinimide product (8) known to date. Finally, mechanistic insight, via DFT calculations, support a noncovalent assembly of the catalyst components into a bifunctional catalyst, correctly predict two levels of product stereoselectivity, and suggest the origin of the tricomponent catalyst system's exceptionality: an alternative hydrogen bond motif for the donor-acceptor pair than currently suggested for non-assembled catalysts.

Sensitive detection assays for influenza RNA do not reveal viremia in US blood donors.

BACKGROUND: There have been anecdotal reports of influenza viremia since the 1960s. We present an assessment of the prevalence of seasonal and 2009 H1N1 influenza viremia (via RNA testing) in blood donor populations using multiple sensitive detection assays. METHODS: Several influenza RNA amplification assays, including transcription-mediated amplification (TMA) and 2 reverse-transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) assays, were evaluated and used to test donor samples. Retrospective samples from 478 subjects drawn at sites with high influenza activity were tested. Prospective samples were collected from 1004 blood donors who called their donation center within 3 days of donation complaining of influenza-like illness (ILI). The plasma collected on the day of donation for these subjects was tested. RESULTS: Of the repository samples, 2 of 478 plasma samples were initially reactive but not repeat reactive by influenza TMA. Of blood donors reporting ILI symptoms postdonation, 1 of 1004 samples was TMA initially reactive but not repeat reactive; all samples were nonreactive by RT-PCR testing. CONCLUSIONS: Targeting blood donor populations most likely to have influenza infection, we failed to detect influenza RNA in 1482 donor samples, with most tested by 3 different RNA assays. Seasonal influenza does not appear to pose a significant contamination threat to the blood supply.

Practical access to highly enantioenriched quaternary carbon Michael adducts using simple organocatalysts.

A three component catalyst system entailing an amino acid (O(t)Bu-L-threonine), a hydrogen bond donor (sulfamide), and an amine base (DMAP) allows α-branched aldehyde addition to nitroalkenes in good to high yield and excellent ee. Importantly, the lowest reported catalyst loading (5.0 mol%) and aldehyde stoichiometry (1.2-2.0 equiv) is demonstrated and in most instances the best current product profile is observed.

Picolylamine as an organocatalyst template for highly diastereo- and enantioselective aqueous aldol reactions.

A pyridine based 1,2-diamine containing only one stereogenic center has been identified for fast aldol reactions (16-48 h). Using 2-5 mol% of (R)- or (S)-PicAm-2, cyclohexanone (3.3 equiv) readily undergoes aldol reactions with o-, m-, and p-substituted aromatic aldehyde partners (limiting reagent), including the poor electrophile 4-methylbenzaldehyde (95-99% ee). Furthermore, functionalized cyclic ketone substrates have been converted into four aldol products 9-12 using the lowest catalyst loading (5.0 mol%) to date with the highest yield and enantioselectivity.

Ytterbium acetate promoted asymmetric reductive amination: significantly enhanced stereoselectivity.

Reductive amination of prochiral unhindered 2-alkanones 1 with (R)- or (S)-alpha-MBA in the presence of Yb(OAc)3 (50-110 mol %), Raney-Ni, and hydrogen (120 psi) results in increased diastereoselectivity for the amine products 2 (80-89% de) with good yield (80-87%). The increased de is based on comparison with the best previously reported de's when using (R)- or (S)-alpha-MBA, regardless of the strategy employed [stepwise (isolation of ketimines) or one-pot (reductive amination)], reducing agent examined, or achiral Lewis acid or Brønsted acid examined. An in situ cis- to trans-ketimine isomerization mechanism, promoted by Yb(OAc)3, has been proposed to account for the observed increase in diastereoselectivity and suggests a new entry into the control of ketimine geometry.

Effects of lung volume reduction surgery on sleep quality and nocturnal gas exchange in patients with severe emphysema.

STUDY OBJECTIVES: We hypothesized that associated with improvements in respiratory mechanics, lung volume reduction surgery (LVRS) would result in an improvement in both sleep quality and nocturnal oxygenation in patients with severe emphysema. DESIGN: Prospective randomized controlled trial. SETTING: University hospital. PATIENTS: Sixteen patients (10 men, 63 +/- 6 years [+/- SD]) with severe airflow limitation (FEV(1), 28 +/- 10% predicted) and hyperinflation (total lung capacity, 123 +/- 14% predicted) who were part of the National Emphysema Treatment Trial. INTERVENTIONS AND MEASUREMENTS: Patients completed 6 to 10 weeks of outpatient pulmonary rehabilitation. Spirometry, measurement of lung volumes, arterial blood gas analysis, and polysomnography were performed prior to randomization and again 6 months after therapy. Ten patients underwent LVRS and optimal medical therapy, while 6 patients received optimal medical therapy only. RESULTS: Total sleep time and sleep efficiency improved following LVRS (from 184 +/- 111 to 272 +/- 126 min [p = 0.007], and from 45 +/- 26 to 61 +/- 26% [p = 0.01], respectively), while there was no change with medical therapy alone (236 +/- 75 to 211 +/- 125 min [p = 0.8], and from 60 +/- 18 to 52 +/- 17% [p = 0.5], respectively). The mean and lowest oxygen saturation during the night improved with LVRS (from 90 +/- 7 to 93 +/- 4% [p = 0.05], and from 83 +/- 10 to 86 +/- 10% [p = 0.03], respectively), while no change was noted in the medical therapy group (from 91 +/- 5 to 91 +/- 5 [p = 1.0], and from 84 +/- 5 to 82 +/- 6% [p = 0.3], respectively). There was a correlation between the change in FEV(1) and change in the lowest oxygen saturation during the night (r = 0.6, p = 0.02). In addition, there was an inverse correlation between the change in the lowest oxygen saturation during the night and the change in residual volume (- r = 0.5, p = 0.04) and functional residual capacity (- r = 0.6, p = 0.03). CONCLUSION: In patients with severe emphysema, LVRS, but not continued optimal medical therapy, results in improved sleep quality and nocturnal oxygenation. Improvements in nocturnal oxygenation correlate with improved airflow and a decrease in hyperinflation and air trapping.

Evolution of titanium(IV) alkoxides and raney nickel for asymmetric reductive amination of prochiral aliphatic ketones.

[reaction: see text] A new method for the one-pot asymmetric reductive amination of prochiral aliphatic ketones has been developed. The previously unexplored reagent combination of Ti(O(i)Pr)(4)/Raney Ni/H(2) in the presence of (R)- or (S)-alpha-methylbenzylamine provides good to excellent yield (76-90%) and diastereomeric excess (72-98%). The second step, hydrogenolysis, provides the corresponding primary amine in high yield (88-93%) and with uncompromised enantiomeric excess.

Hormonal correlates of clozapine-induced weight gain in psychotic children: an exploratory study.

OBJECTIVE: Weight gain is a serious side effect of atypical antipsychotics, especially in childhood. In this study, the authors examined six weight gain-related hormones in patients with childhood-onset schizophrenia (COS) after 6 weeks of clozapine treatment. METHOD: Fasting serum samples for 24 patients with COS and 21 matched healthy controls (HC) were obtained. Levels of leptin, insulin, adiponectin, amylin, ghrelin, and tumor necrosis factor alpha were measured and compared between the groups. For 23 patients with COS, hormonal levels were measured at background and week 6 of clozapine treatment. Change in body mass index was correlated with levels of clozapine and changes in hormonal levels and clinical ratings. RESULTS: At baseline, COS did not differ significantly from HC on any hormonal measure. Clozapine treatment was associated with significant (7.9% +/- 8.5%) increase in mean body mass index. Only leptin levels increased significantly from baseline to week 6 on clozapine (p = .003). Body mass index increase was significantly correlated with decrease in ghrelin and adiponectin and was positively correlated with clinical improvement. CONCLUSIONS: This is the first study of weight gain-related hormones in children on clozapine. Hormonal changes are correlated with weight gain. How effectiveness of clozapine is linked to weight gain remains uncertain.

Effects of oxygen therapy on left ventricular function in patients with Cheyne-Stokes respiration and congestive heart failure.

STUDY OBJECTIVES: Whereas both oxygen therapy and nasal continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP) decrease the apnea-hypopnea index (AHI) in patients with Cheyne-Stokes respiration (CSR) and congestive heart failure (CHF), only nasal CPAP is known to affect the left ventricular ejection fraction (LVEF). We therefore evaluated the effects of 1 month of nocturnal oxygen therapy on LVEF. METHODS: Ten patients (52 +/- 12 years) with CHF (LVEF of 12% +/- 5%) and CSR (AHI 57 +/- 61 events/hour) were studied. Polysomnograms identified CSR and were repeated on oxygen initially (oxygen night 1 [2 L/min]) and after 30 nights (oxygen night 2). LVEF was measured by radionuclide ventriculography. RESULTS: Oxygen therapy decreased the AHI from a baseline of 57 +/- 61 to 9 +/- 11 and 12 +/- 17 events per hour during oxygen nights 1 and 2, respectively (p < .05), with no difference between treatment nights. The lowest oxygen saturation increased during oxygen nights 1 and 2, from a baseline of 87% +/- 7% to 94% +/- 4% and 91% +/- 7%, respectively (p < .05), with no difference between treatment nights. The LVEF did not significantly change from a baseline of 22% +/- 11% to 19% +/- 9% after 1 month of nocturnal oxygen (p = .05). Compared to baseline, there was no change in circulation time during oxygen nights 1 and 2, from 24 +/- 8 seconds to 30 +/- 15 seconds and 23 +/- 6 seconds, respectively (p = .2). Total sleep time, sleep efficiency, and sleep architecture, when compared with baseline, remained unchanged during both oxygen therapy nights. CONCLUSIONS: Although 1 month of nocturnal oxygen therapy decreases the AHI in patients with CSR and CHF, there is no improvement in left ventricular function.

Comparison of a salivary/sputum pepsin assay with 24-hour esophageal pH monitoring for detection of gastric reflux into the proximal esophagus, oropharynx, and lung.

The purpose of this study was to determine whether measurement of salivary/sputum pepsin could be used as a surrogate marker for detecting gastroesophageal reflux using 24-hr esophageal pH monitoring as the gold standard. Patients with gastroesophageal reflux symptoms underwent simultaneous 24-hr esophageal pH monitoring and collection of saliva and sputum samples for pepsin measurement using a recently developed assay. In all, 16 patients provided 19 positive (10.6%) and 161 negative pepsin assays. The mean pH values for the positive pepsin samples were lower then the negative samples at both the proximal [5.34 (95% CI, 4.94-5.75) vs 6.12 (95% CI, 6.03-6.20; P < 0.01)] and distal [4.97 (95% CI, 4.61-5.33) vs 6.03 (95% CI, 5.92-6.15; P < 0.01)] pH probes. Proximal esophageal reflux was not detected in patients who had a negative pepsin assay (N = 12); in contrast, proximal esophageal reflux was documented in three of four patients with a positive assay. In conclusion, detection of pepsin in the saliva and/or sputum may provide a noninvasive method to test for the proximal reflux of gastric contents.

Chemoenzymatic Synthesis of All Four Stereoisomers of Sphingosine from Chlorobenzene: Glycosphingolipid Precursors(1)(a).

Advantageous use of homochiral cyclohexadiene-cis-1,2-diol 2, available by means of biocatalytic oxidation of chlorobenzene with toluene dioxygenase, has enabled the synthesis of all four enantiomerically pure C(18)-sphingosines 1. The four requisite diastereomers of azido alcohols 4a-d were accessed by regioselective opening of epoxides 7 and 8 with either azide or halide ions. The configuration of C4 and C5 in azides 4 defines the stereochemistry of the incipient sphingosine chain, liberated from 4 by the oxidative cleavage of the C1-C6 olefin. For L-threo-sphingosine (1b), lactol 20b generated by this cleavage was converted by periodate oxidation to azido deoxy L-threose 22b, which gave 1b upon Wittig olefination and reduction. Similarly, D-erythro-sphingosine (1a) and L-erythro-sphingosine (1c) were generated from 4a,c, respectively. The last sphingosine (1d) was synthesized from the silyl-protected azido alcohol 29d. Subsequent transformations provided silyl-protected azido deoxy D-threose 32d, which upon Wittig olefination and reduction gave D-threo-sphingosine (1d). Experimental and spectral data are provided for all new compounds.