Comparative Study of Batch and Continuous Flow Reactors in Selective Hydrogenation of Functional Groups in Organic Compounds: What Is More Effective?

Many research papers describe selective hydrogenation of functional groups, such as nitro groups, carbonyl groups, or unsaturated carbon bonds to obtain fine chemicals or precursors of pharmaceuticals. Quite often, the catalyst performance is investigated in batch or continuous flow reactors without finding advantages and disadvantages of this or that regime. At the same time, the transition from batch processes to continuous flow occurs on the industrial scale. However, the batch process can be preferable for some reactions, in spite of its drawbacks. This review article aims to identify all publications that consider selective hydrogenation of functional groups in organic compounds, both in batch and continuous flow reactors, at the same reaction conditions that allow making conclusions about the benefits of one of the regimes in a particular case.

Effect of Phosphorus Precursor, Reduction Temperature, and Support on the Catalytic Properties of Nickel Phosphide Catalysts in Continuous-Flow Reductive Amination of Ethyl Levulinate.

Levulinic acid and its esters (e.g., ethyl levulinate, EL) are platform chemicals derived from biomass feedstocks that can be converted to a variety of valuable compounds. Reductive amination of levulinates with primary amines and H2 over heterogeneous catalysts is an attractive method for the synthesis of N-alkyl-5-methyl-2-pyrrolidones, which are an environmentally friendly alternative to the common solvent N-methyl-2-pyrrolidone (NMP). In the present work, the catalytic properties of the different nickel phosphide catalysts supported on SiO2 and Al2O3 were studied in a reductive amination of EL with n-hexylamine to N-hexyl-5-methyl-2-pyrrolidone (HMP) in a flow reactor. The influence of the phosphorus precursor, reduction temperature, reactant ratio, and addition of acidic diluters on the catalyst performance was investigated. The Ni2P/SiO2 catalyst prepared using (NH4)2HPO4 and reduced at 600 °C provides the highest HMP yield, which reaches 98%. Although the presence of acid sites and a sufficient hydrogenating ability are important factors determining the pyrrolidone yield, the selectivity also depends on the specific features of EL adsorption on active catalytic sites.

Two-Step One-Pot Reductive Amination of Furanic Aldehydes Using CuAlOx Catalyst in a Flow Reactor.

Aminomethylhydroxymethylfuran derivatives are well known compounds which are used in the pharmaceutical industry. Reductive amination of 5-hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF) derived from available non-edible lignocellulosic biomass is an attractive method for the synthesis of this class of compounds. In the present study, the synthesis of N-substituted 5-(hydroxymethyl)-2-furfuryl amines and 5-(acetoxymethyl)-2-furfuryl amines was performed by two-step process, which includes the condensation of furanic aldehydes (HMF and 5-acetoxymethylfurfural) with primary amines in methanol on the first step and the reduction of obtained imines with hydrogen in a flow reactor over CuAlOx catalyst derived from layered double hydroxide on the second step. This process does not require isolation and purification of intermediate imines and can be used to synthesize a number of aminomethylhydroxymethylfurans in good to excellent yield.

Selective Liquid-Phase Hydrogenation of a Nitro Group in Substituted Nitrobenzenes over Au/Al2 O3 Catalyst in a Packed-Bed Flow Reactor.

A series of substituted nitrobenzenes with the general formula XC6 H4 NO2 (X=Cl, CH=CH2 , or C(O)CH3 ) dissolved in toluene were reduced with hydrogen over the 1.9 % Au/Al2 O3 catalyst at 60-110 °C and 10-20 bar in a three-phase packed-bed reactor operating in up-flow mode. Under these conditions, hydrogenation of isomeric ClC6 H4 NO2 gives exclusively chloroanilines. Hydrogenation of 3-CH2 CHC6 H4 NO2 and 4-CH3 C(O)C6 H4 NO2 leads to the formation of 3-CH2 CHC6 H4 NH2 and 4-CH3 C(O)C6 H4 NH2 with selectivities of up to 93 and 97 % at substrate conversions of 98 and 100 %, respectively. Smooth catalyst deactivation was observed regardless of which substituted nitrobenzene was taken for hydrogenation. According to the results obtained by temperature-programmed oxidation of the spent catalyst, a carbonaceous deposit formed that might block the catalyst surface. Almost complete regeneration of the supported gold catalyst with retention of its high selectivity to hydrogenation of a nitro group was achieved in a flow of air at temperatures up to 400 °C to eliminate carbonaceous deposits.

Modular, homochiral, porous coordination polymers: rational design, enantioselective guest exchange sorption and ab initio calculations of host-guest interactions.

Two new, homochiral, porous metal-organic coordination polymers [Zn(2)(ndc){(R)-man}(dmf)]⋅3DMF and [Zn(2)(bpdc){(R)-man}(dmf)]⋅2DMF (ndc=2,6-naphthalenedicarboxylate; bpdc=4,4'-biphenyldicarboxylate; man=mandelate; dmf=N,N'-dimethylformamide) have been synthesized by heating Zn(II) nitrate, H(2)ndc or H(2)bpdc and chiral (R)-mandelic acid (H(2)man) in DMF. The colorless crystals were obtained and their structures were established by single-crystal X-ray diffraction. These isoreticular structures share the same topological features as the previously reported zinc(II) terephthalate lactate [Zn(2)(bdc){(S)-lac}(dmf)]⋅DMF framework, but have larger pores and opposite absolute configuration of the chiral centers. The enhanced pores size results in differing stereoselective sorption properties: the new metal-organic frameworks effectively and stereoselectively (ee up to 62 %) accommodate bulkier guest molecules (alkyl aryl sulfoxides) than the parent [Zn(2)(bdc){(S)-lac}(dmf)]⋅DMF, while the latter demonstrates decent enantioselectivity toward precursor of chiral anticancer drug sulforaphane, CH(3)SO(CH(2))(4)OH. The new homochiral porous metal-organic coordination polymers are capable of catalyzing a highly selective oxidation of bulkier sulfides (2-NaphSMe (2-C(10)H(7)SMe) and PhSCH(2)Ph) that could not be achieved by the smaller-pore [Zn(2)(bdc){(S)-lac}(dmf)]⋅DMF. The sorption of different guest molecules (both R and S isomers) into the chiral pores of [Zn(2)(bdc){(S)-lac}(dmf)]⋅DMF was modeled by using ab initio calculations that provided a qualitative explanation for the observed sorption enantioselectivity. The high stereo-preference is accounted for by the presence of coordinated inner-pore DMF molecule that forms a weak C-H...O bond between the DMF methyl group and the (S)-PhSOCH(3) sulfinyl group.

Homogeneous and heterogeneous catalytic oxidation of sulfides by H2O2 over zinc(II) compounds.

It has been recently shown that zinc compounds are effective catalysts for the oxidation of alkyl aryl sulfides to the corresponding sulfoxides in the presence of hydrogen peroxide. In this paper, we have investigated homogeneous and heterogeneous catalytic oxidation of sulfides by H(2)O(2) over Zn(NO(3))(2) x 6 H(2)O and the metal-organic porous material [Zn(2)(bdc)(L-lac)(dmf)] x DMF (where H(2)bdc = p-benzenedicarboxylic acid, H(2)lac = lactic acid), respectively. The experimental data can be explained by the proposed catalytic cycle which includes the activation of H(2)O(2) via coordination to Zn(II) ions followed by oxygen transfer step. In homogeneous conditions, the presence of a large amounts of H(2)O(2) results in the coordination of two molecules of hydrogen peroxide to Zn(II), so that sulfone is formed via transfer of two oxygen atoms from Zn(H(2)O)(4)(H(2)O(2))(2)(2+) active species. Contrary to the homogeneous system, the use of [Zn(2)(bdc)(L-lac)(dmf)] x DMF as catalyst does not lead to the formation of sulfone in the initial period of reaction. This is consistent with the proposed catalytic cycle of sulfoxidation as each Zn(II) center in the crystalline framework is able to activate only one H(2)O(2) molecule. Our investigations indicate that the sorption and activation of H(2)O(2) molecules by microporous framework [Zn(2)(bdc)(L-lac)(dmf)] occur faster than sulfide sorption and oxygen transfer.