Climate change, human health, and resilience in the Holocene.

Climate change is an indisputable threat to human health, especially for societies already confronted with rising social inequality, political and economic uncertainty, and a cascade of concurrent environmental challenges. Archaeological data about past climate and environment provide an important source of evidence about the potential challenges humans face and the long-term outcomes of alternative short-term adaptive strategies. Evidence from well-dated archaeological human skeletons and mummified remains speaks directly to patterns of human health over time through changing circumstances. Here, we describe variation in human epidemiological patterns in the context of past rapid climate change (RCC) events and other periods of past environmental change. Case studies confirm that human communities responded to environmental changes in diverse ways depending on historical, sociocultural, and biological contingencies. Certain factors, such as social inequality and disproportionate access to resources in large, complex societies may influence the probability of major sociopolitical disruptions and reorganizations-commonly known as "collapse." This survey of Holocene human-environmental relations demonstrates how flexibility, variation, and maintenance of Indigenous knowledge can be mitigating factors in the face of environmental challenges. Although contemporary climate change is more rapid and of greater magnitude than the RCC events and other environmental changes we discuss here, these lessons from the past provide clarity about potential priorities for equitable, sustainable development and the constraints of modernity we must address.

Twenty-first century bioarchaeology: Taking stock and moving forward.

This article presents outcomes from a Workshop entitled "Bioarchaeology: Taking Stock and Moving Forward," which was held at Arizona State University (ASU) on March 6-8, 2020. Funded by the National Science Foundation (NSF), the School of Human Evolution and Social Change (ASU), and the Center for Bioarchaeological Research (CBR, ASU), the Workshop's overall goal was to explore reasons why research proposals submitted by bioarchaeologists, both graduate students and established scholars, fared disproportionately poorly within recent NSF Anthropology Program competitions and to offer advice for increasing success. Therefore, this Workshop comprised 43 international scholars and four advanced graduate students with a history of successful grant acquisition, primarily from the United States. Ultimately, we focused on two related aims: (1) best practices for improving research designs and training and (2) evaluating topics of contemporary significance that reverberate through history and beyond as promising trajectories for bioarchaeological research. Among the former were contextual grounding, research question/hypothesis generation, statistical procedures appropriate for small samples and mixed qualitative/quantitative data, the salience of Bayesian methods, and training program content. Topical foci included ethics, social inequality, identity (including intersectionality), climate change, migration, violence, epidemic disease, adaptability/plasticity, the osteological paradox, and the developmental origins of health and disease. Given the profound changes required globally to address decolonization in the 21st century, this concern also entered many formal and informal discussions.

Advances in paleopathology in context: A focus on soft tissue paleopathology.

Skeletal and mummified remains from South America have had a significant impact on the progress of paleopathological research. In 1997, John Verano synthesized the state of paleopathological research, identifying trends and highlighting future potentials. The goal of this contribution is to consider Verano's observations on advances in soft tissue paleopathology within the context of the development of the field of mummy studies. As his article was published near the midpoint between the present and the early 1970s, when the modern form of mummy studies began to form, considering his observations in this context allows researchers the opportunity to consider how the field has progressed since the late 1990s.

Mummy studies and the bioarchaeology of care.

The bioarchaeology of care is a framework through which researchers can begin to infer the level of care an individual may have required based on the presence of paleopathological evidence. To date, all of the research that has employed the framework has been based on evidence derived from skeletal material. This special issue was organized in order to highlight how the analysis of mummified soft tissue, as well as other sources of data commonly associated with mummified remains, such as coprolites and intestinal contents, has the potential to provide valuable insight into the reconstruction of care in the past.

A 'cold case' of care: Looking at old data from a new perspective in mummy research.

In 1973, analysis of the mummified remains of a young boy dated to 700AD and from the Late Nasca period (Peru) identified (i) chronic Pott's disease, leading to loss of lower body mobility, and (ii) acute miliary tuberculosis, affecting most organs and the immediate cause of death (Allison et al., 1973). This report was the first to establish, beyond dispute, the presence of tuberculosis in the Americas before the arrival of Europeans. Here, we revisit the 'Nasca Boy' from a bioarchaeology of care perspective. Contextualising the original study's results within what is known of contemporary lifeways, we apply the bioarchaeology of care methodology in considering the Nasca Boy's experience of living with tuberculosis; the type of care he required and how this may have evolved over a period of deteriorating health; and what such caregiving may suggest both about social organisation within his community and some of the more everyday aspects of Nasca existence. Up to now, the bioarchaeology of care approach has been employed almost exclusively with skeletal evidence; in this analysis of the Nasca Boy's remains, and in the accompanying wider-ranging discussion, we illustrate the potential of preserved soft tissue evidence to contribute to research into disability and care in the past. Although this report functions as a stand-alone case study, to obtain maximum benefit it should be read in conjunction with the Introduction to the special International Journal of Paleopathology issue on 'mummy studies and the bioarchaeology of care' (Nystrom and Tilley, 2018).

Postmortem examinations and the embodiment of inequality in 19th century United States.

A young adult female recovered from the Newburgh Colored Burial Ground (1830-1870) exhibits evidence of a postmortem examination in which the calvarium was circumferentially cut. At this time in the United States postmortem examinations and dissections were only legal when performed on criminals and the poor. However, the illegal appropriation of bodies from the cemeteries of marginalized groups such as African Americans served as a major source of anatomical specimens. The goals of this paper are to describe the evidence for a postmortem examination and subsequently to contextualize the significance of such a procedure within the prevailing cultural attitudes toward the body and anatomy. The first task is relatively straightforward and adds to our understanding of medical practices of the time. Realization of the second task is more elusive as it necessitates characterizing the motivation for the procedure, something that must remain speculative. The discussion of the procedure as a form of embodied identity, however, gives us insight into race relations during this time while also providing a lens through which we can consider embodiment in other contexts.

Late Chachapoya population structure prior to Inka conquest.

Archaeological and ethnohistorical documents suggest that the Chachapoya region was inhabited by a number of distinct sociopolitical groups that only united in the face of their common enemy, the Inka. The purpose of this research is to quantify the amount of internal genetic differentiation and levels of extraregional gene flow during the Late Chachapoya period, in order to obtain a better understanding of the genetic relationship between these presumed ethnic groups. Craniometric data were collected from three Late Chachapoya samples (Laguna Huayabamba, Kuelap, and Laguna de los Cóndores), in order to understand the genetic relationships between the groups and facilitate our understanding of Late Chachapoya population structure. Genetic differentiation among these series ranged from 0.047 (heritability = 1.0) to 0.090 (heritability = 0.55). The Relethford-Blangero residuals indicate that the Laguna Huayabamba and Laguna de los Cóndores populations were receiving greater than average external gene flow, while Kuelap was receiving less than average external gene flow. The correspondence between biological and archaeological data in the investigation of prehistoric ethnic identity is discussed.

Trauma-induced changes in diaphyseal cross-sectional geometry in two elites from Copan, Honduras.

This research utilized biplanar radiographs to estimate cross-sectional biomechanical properties for the skeletal remains of two elite individuals from the Early Classic period (ca. AD 400-600) of Copan, Honduras: K'inich Yax K'uk' Mo' (Hunal Burial 95-2), founder of the Early Classic Dynasty at Copan, and the primary female interment (Burial 37-8) from the Motmot tomb. Both individuals survived severe blunt-force insults to the right forearm. Gross skeletal examination and evaluation of the radiographs for K'inich Yax K'uk' Mo' suggest that these traumas resulted from, at least in part, disuse atrophy of the affected forearm skeletal elements. Gross and radiologic evaluation of the Motmot remains countered the possibility that she suffered from a metabolic bone disease, and confirmed the presence of a well-healed parry fracture of the right ulna. The degree of asymmetry in cross-sectional biomechanical properties reported here for K'inich Yax K'uk' Mo' is likely the secondary result of the described blunt-force trauma. The results obtained for the principal Motmot interment are not as dramatic, but suggest subtle changes to humeral cross-sectional geometry subsequent to trauma.

Field paleoradiography of skeletal material from the early classic period of Copan, Honduras.

OBJECTIVE: To perform a radiographic evaluation of the skeletal remains of 2 elite individuals from the Early Classic Period of Copan, namely, K'inich Yax K'uk' Mo' (Hunal Burial 95-2), founder of the Early Classic Dynasty, and the primary female interment from the Motmot tomb (Burial 37-8). Our aims were to document pathologies and subsequent changes in long-bone density resulting from physiologic or functional adaptations, such as disuse atrophy. METHODS: Standardized anteroposterior and mediolateral radiographs were obtained using a portable veterinary x-ray unit and Polaroid film. Orthogonal radiographs were used to estimate the cross-sectional biomechanical properties of the long bones. RESULTS: In the case of Yax K'uk' Mo', it appears that there was trauma-induced disuse atrophy of the right forearm resulting in an accelerated loss of cortical bone in the right humerus relative to the left humerus. The restructuring of this individual's left shoulder girdle probably resulted in radical structural and functional changes. Although this fracture could have contributed to degenerative changes and paralysis, there was no evidence of disuse atrophy in the left upper limb. The gracile Motmot skeleton showed no signs of osteoporosis, osteopenia or disuse atrophy. CONCLUSIONS: The use of radiography in the assessment of the skeletal material described here vastly increased our ability to document the pathologic processes that affected these centuries-old individuals during their lifetimes. In addition, the use of radiographs allowed us to expand our understanding of how these processes may have affected biomechanics and, subsequently, long-bone geometric properties.