ESTIMATES OF RADIATION DOSES TO THE SKIN FOR PEOPLE CAMPED AT WALLATINNA DURING THE UK TOTEM 1 ATOMIC WEAPONS TEST.

A group of Aboriginal people was camped at Wallatinna in South Australia, ~170 km downwind from Emu Field, where an atomic test (the Totem 1 test) was carried out at 07.00 on 15 October 1953 local time (21.30 on 14 October 1953 GMT (Greenwich Mean Time)). They left the camp ~24 hours later. These people stated that a phenomenon that has become known as a 'black mist' rolled through their camp site ~5 hours after detonation and that some of them subsequently became sick, displaying skin reddening and nausea. They feared that the sickness was a result of exposure to high levels of radiation. The purpose of this paper is to determine if these people could have received ionising radiation doses high enough to cause the symptoms displayed. The methodology used for the dose estimates is described in the paper. The exposure modes considered were external exposure due to the passage of a contaminated plume over the camp site, inhalation of material from this plume, external exposure from material deposited on the ground as the plume passed, and consumption of contaminated food and water. The contaminants considered in the airborne cloud and the ground plume were fission products and unburnt plutonium from the nuclear detonation, and neutron activation products caused by vaporisation of the tower used to position the weapon. The source was approximated by a line source. An upper estimate of the effective doses received is ~4 mSv, which is well below the level at which acute radiation effects are observed. This estimate is consistent with earlier assessments, which did not consider inhalation of the contribution from neutron activation products.

Assessment of intakes of mixtures of radionuclides.

Australia has several uranium mines and a large number of mineral sand mines, with associated processing facilities. Exposures resulting from these mining and processing operations usually involve intakes of mixtures of radionuclides. This work describes the development of a suite of first order, linear compartment models, based on the ICRP Publication 66 respiratory tract model, and an analytical solution to the decay equations, for assessing the consequences of such intakes. The computer programs based on these models directly compute excretion, organ retention and organ and whole-body doses for intakes of either single radionuclides or any mixture of radionuclides belonging to the same radioactive decay chain. The intake can be via inhalation, ingestion or injection, and can be acute, chronic or of limited duration. The starting concentration and degree of secular (dis)equilibrium can be specified for each radionuclide. No assumptions need to be made about the relative magnitudes of the radioactive half-lives of the different nuclides.

Radon exhalation rates and gamma doses from ceramic tiles.

This study was carried out to assess the possible radiological hazard resulting from the use of zircon in glaze applied to tiles used in buildings. The 226Ra content of various stains and glazing compounds was measured using gamma spectroscopy and the 222Rn exhalation rates for these materials were measured using adsorption on activated charcoal. The radon exhalation rates were found to be close to or less than the minimum detectable values for the equipment used. This limit was much lower than the estimated exhalation rates, which were calculated assuming that the parameters controlling the emanation and diffusion of 222Rn in the materials studied were similar to those of soil. This implied that the 222Rn emanation coefficients and/or diffusion coefficients for most of the materials studied were very much lower than expected. Measurements on zircon powders showed that the 222Rn emanation coefficient for zircon was much lower than that for soil, indicating that only a small fraction of the 222Rn produced by the decay of 226Ra was able to escape from the zircon grains. The estimated increase in radon concentration in room air and the estimated external gamma radiation dose resulting from the use of zircon glaze are both much lower than the relevant action level and dose limit.

Technologically enhanced naturally occurring radioactive material (NORM): pathway analysis and radiological impact.

The main pathways by which technologically enhanced radioactive materials can impact on human health have been examined. Analytical methods are presented for calculation of the radiation doses for the dominant pathways for external and internal exposure. The application of computer modelling to the assessment of the radiological impact of NORM is also discussed.

Gamma doses from phospho-gypsum plaster-board.

The use of phospho-gypsum plaster-board and plaster cement in buildings as a substitute for natural gypsum may constitute an additional source of radiation exposure to both workers and members of the public, both from inhalation of radon progeny produced from radon which is exhaled from the plaster-board and from beta and gamma radiation produced by radioactive decay in the plaster-board. The calculations presented in this paper indicate that if phospho-gypsum sheets 1 cm thick containing a 226Ra concentration of 400 Bq kg(-1) are used to line the walls and ceiling of a room of dimensions up to 5 m x 5 m x 3 m, the annual effective dose from gamma radiation for a person continually occupying the room should not exceed approximately 0.13 mSv. This compares with a measured annual average effective dose from gamma radiation in Australian homes of 0.9 mSv. The annual effective dose from such thin sheets is directly proportional to the 226Ra concentration in the plaster-board.

Estimates of inhalation doses resulting from the possible use of phospho-gypsum plaster-board in Australian homes.

Current materials used as internal lining in Australian buildings are based on natural gypsum of low radium content. A study was carried out to estimate the contribution to the annual effective dose due to airborne contamination from chemical by-product gypsum plaster-board of higher radium content if it were used as an internal lining. The 226Ra content and 222Rn exhalation rate were measured for several samples of the plaster-board, and the behavior of 222Rn and its progeny (218Po, 214Pb, 214Bi, and 214Po) in a typical building was modeled numerically, using the results of the exhalation rate measurements as input. For building ventilation rates greater than approximately 0.5 air changes per hour, the contribution to the total annual effective dose from inhalation of 222Rn and its progeny exhaled from the phospho-gypsum plaster-board is estimated to be below 1 mSv. This contribution is reduced if the surface of the plaster-board is coated with paint or cardboard, or if the very fine particles are removed from the phospho-gypsum during manufacture of the plaster-board. The effective doses arising from dust generation during the installation of the plaster-board are also estimated to be below 1 mSv. The recommended action level of 200 Bq m-3 for radon in air in Australia corresponds to an annual effective dose of approximately 6 mSv. The study indicates that the suggested acceptable level of 185 Bq kg-1 for the 226Ra concentration in the plaster-board may be too restrictive under Australian conditions.

Performance of a diffusion barrier charcoal adsorption 222Rn monitor under conditions of varying humidity and temperature.

An investigation of the performance of a diffusion barrier, charcoal-based 222Rn monitor under several artificial environmental conditions showed that both temperature and relative humidity levels affect 222Rn uptake. A physical model was developed adequately describing the temperature effects, while an empirical model was used to summarize the combined effects of temperature and atmospheric water concentration.

Physiological alterations consequent to 20-week conditioning programs of bicycling, tennis, and jogging.

This study investigated the efficacy of free-wheel bicycling and tennis as endurance conditioning activities. The subjects were 38 sedentary, middle-aged male volunteers, who were randomly assigned to one of four groups: bicyling (N=9); tennis (N=10); jogging (N=9); and control (N=10). Each subject was tested twice at the beginning and once at the conclusion of the 20-week study. Each training group exercised 3 days/week for 30 min/day, following 15 minutes of formal warm-up. The bicycling, tennis and jogging groups had an average attendance of 3.0, 2.7, and 2.8 days/week, and maintained theri exercise intensity at 83, 65, and 85% of HR max respectively. Using analysis of covariance, only the bicycle and jogging groups significantly increased treadmill Vo2max (14.8 and 13.3% respectively) even though there was a 5.7% improvement for the tennis group. The control group did not change. Vo2max was also assessed on a cycle ergometer for the bicycle and jogging groups, and increased significantly by 17.4 and 14.0% respectively, thus, specificity of the training response was not identified. VEmax increased significantly in the bicycling and jogging groups, while resting blood pressure did not change for any of the four groups. Relative to body composition, only the bicycle group increased lean body weight. The bicycle and jogging groups had substantial decreases in relative and absolute body fat, but these changes were not statistically significant due to changes in the control group. In conclusion, bicycling and jogging appear to provide comparable physiological benefits. Tennis produced only modest increases in endurance capacity but, since the duration of each training session was only 30 to 50% of a typical time period for playing tennis, the results of the present study may, in fact, be underestimating changes in Vo2max due to the interaction of intensity and duration in facilitating change.

Psychiatric follow-up studies. Practical procedures and ethical concerns.

The difficulties of performing prospective psychiatric follow-up studies have recently increased due to growing concern over the ethical issues involved. In a study to determine the efficacy of different lengths of psychiatric hospitalization 235 patients were followed for 2 years after study hospitalization. Data were obtained on more than 90 per cent of the patients. The cost of performing 100 follow-up interviews ranged from $9,169 for patients living within a 6-mile radius of the study site, to $17,942 for patients living within the contiguous United States. It is concluded that through persistent effort useful data can be obtained by follow-up of psychiatric patients, while maintaining ethical standards which include respect for the rights and wishes of the patient.