Day-to-day mastery and self-efficacy changes during a smoking quit attempt: Two studies.

OBJECTIVE: In social-cognitive theory, it is hypothesized that mastery experiences (successfully implementing behaviour change) are a source of self-efficacy, and self-efficacy increases the opportunity for experiencing mastery. Vicarious experiences (seeing others succeed) are suggested as another source of self-efficacy. However, the hypothesis of this reciprocal relationship has not been tested using a day-to-day design. DESIGN: This article reports findings from two intensive longitudinal studies, testing the reciprocal relationship of self-efficacy and its two main sources within the naturally occurring process of quitting smoking (without intervention). Smokers (Study 1: N = 100 smokers in smoker-non-smoker couples (1,787 observations); Study 2; N = 81 female (1,401 observations) and N = 79 male smokers (1,328 observations) in dual-smoker couples) reported their mastery experiences (not smoking the entire day; in Study 2, mastery experience of partner served as vicarious experience) and smoking-specific self-efficacy for 21 days after a self-set quit date. METHODS: Time-lagged multilevel analyses were conducted using change-predicting-change models. RESULTS: Increases in mastery experiences predicted changes in self-efficacy, and increases in self-efficacy predicted changes in mastery experiences in Study 1. Study 2 replicated these results and showed contagion effects (partners' mastery on individuals' mastery and partners' self-efficacy on individuals' self-efficacy), but found no evidence for a link between vicarious experiences (partners' mastery experiences) and individuals' self-efficacy. CONCLUSIONS: This article demonstrates that mastery experiences and self-efficacy show a reciprocal relationship within smokers during a quit attempt in a day-to-day design, as well as contagion effects in couples when both partners try to quit simultaneously. Statement of Contribution What is already known on this subject? Self-efficacy is one of the strongest correlates of quitting smoking. Despite the assumptions on how self-efficacy is built formulated by Bandura two decades ago, there is only little empirical evidence on the origins of self-efficacy. The open research questions for these two studies were whether mastery experiences (experiencing success with the new behavior) and vicarious experiences (seeing others succeed) facilitate the smoking cessation process, whether mastery experiences and self-efficacy affect one another reciprocally and whether intimate partners serve as role models for each other. What does this study add? Mastery experiences and self-efficacy are mutually depended on a day-to-day basis within the smoking cessation process. Effects of mastery experiences fade rapidly, indicating that constant successes are needed to keep up self-efficacy. Dual-smoker couples show similar changes in a contagious way - if mastery experiences increase in one person, mastery experiences increase in the partner; if self-efficacy increases in one person, self-efficacy increases in the partner, too. No support for vicarious experiences (mastery experiences in one person affecting self-efficacy in the partner and vice versa) as sources of self-efficacy in the quitting process was found.

Invisible Support: Effects on the Provider's Positive and Negative Affect.

BACKGROUND: Social support that goes unnoticed by receivers (i.e. invisible support) seems to be most beneficial for the receivers' well-being. The providers' well-being, however, has been neglected so far. This study examines how invisible support is related to the providers' well-being and whether this association is dependent on the providers' relationship satisfaction. METHODS: Overall, 97 non-smoking partners of smokers who were about to quit smoking were examined. Invisible support was assessed dyadically: partners' reports on smoking-specific provided social support together with smokers' reports on received support were assessed at baseline. Partners' relationship satisfaction was also assessed at baseline. Partners' positive and negative affect were measured at baseline and six-week follow-up. RESULTS: No main effects of invisible instrumental or emotional support occurred. However, partners' relationship satisfaction moderated the association between invisible instrumental support and change in partners' negative and positive affect: For partners with lower relationship satisfaction more invisible instrumental support was related to increased negative affect and decreased positive affect, whereas for partners with higher relationship satisfaction the inverse effects occurred. CONCLUSIONS: The study's results emphasise that invisible instrumental support might have emotional costs for the providers. Relationship satisfaction seems to serve as a protective factor.

Examining the relationship between daily changes in support and smoking around a self-set quit date.

OBJECTIVE: Social support from one's partner is assumed to be beneficial for successful smoking cessation. However, thus far, no study has examined the fine-grained temporal dynamics of daily support and smoking in the process of quitting. METHOD: In this longitudinal mobile phone study, smokers (N = 100, 28% women, mean age = 40.48 years) reported daily number of cigarettes smoked and how much smoking-specific emotional and instrumental social support they received from their partner for 10 days before and 21 days after a self-set quit date. Nonsmoking partners' (N = 99, mean age = 38.95 years) reports of provision of support were assessed to validate the smokers' self-reports regarding support received. Time-lagged analyses were conducted using a change-predicting-change model. RESULTS: Prior and concurrent increases in received emotional smoking-specific support were related to less smoking. Effects were more pronounced after the quit date, which is when support is most needed. Prior change in smoking did not predict change in received support. Results with partner reports of provision of support and results with instrumental support were almost identical. CONCLUSIONS: Daily changes in social support preceded and accompanied daily changes in smoking particularly after a self-set quit date. Findings emphasize the need for a prospective daily diary approach to understand the dynamics of social support in smoking cessation.

Daily negative affect and smoking after a self-set quit attempt: The role of dyadic invisible social support in a daily diary study.

OBJECTIVES: Social support receipt from one's partner is assumed to be beneficial for successful smoking cessation. However, support receipt can have costs. Recent research suggests that the most effective support is unnoticed by the receiver (i.e., invisible). Therefore, this study examined the association between everyday levels of dyadic invisible emotional and instrumental support, daily negative affect, and daily smoking after a self-set quit attempt in smoker-non-smoker couples. METHODS: Overall, 100 smokers (72.0% men, mean age M = 40.48, SD = 9.82) and their non-smoking partners completed electronic diaries from a self-set quit date on for 22 consecutive days, reporting daily invisible emotional and instrumental social support, daily negative affect, and daily smoking. RESULTS: Same-day multilevel analyses showed that at the between-person level, higher individual mean levels of invisible emotional and instrumental support were associated with less daily negative affect. In contrast to our assumption, more receipt of invisible emotional and instrumental support was related to more daily cigarettes smoked. CONCLUSIONS: The findings are in line with previous results, indicating invisible support to have beneficial relations with affect. However, results emphasize the need for further prospective daily diary approaches for understanding the dynamics of invisible support on smoking cessation. Statement of contribution What is already known on this subject? Social support receipt from a close other has proven to have emotional costs. According to current studies, the most effective social support is unnoticed by the receiver (i.e., invisible). There is empirical evidence for beneficial effects of invisible social support on affective well-being. What does this study add? Confirming benefits of invisible social support for negative affect in a health behaviour change setting Providing first evidence for detrimental effects of invisible social support on smoking.

Interacting effects of receiving social control and social support during smoking cessation.

BACKGROUND: Social control and support have effects on smoking cessation, but are mostly examined separately. PURPOSE: Interacting effects of social control and support are investigated, hypothesizing synergistic effects. METHODS: In 99 smokers, received social control and emotional support (both smoking specific) were assessed 2 weeks before a quit date (T1); objectively verified abstinence and self-reported numbers of cigarettes smoked daily were assessed 6 weeks after baseline (T2). RESULTS: For both outcomes, associations with control (T1) were moderated by support (T1), but beneficial synergistic effects (high control/high support) emerged for few participants only. Effects were mainly driven by constellations of low control/high support associated with more cigarettes smoked daily (T2) and low control/low support linked to higher likelihood of abstinence (T2). CONCLUSIONS: Different constellations of levels of control and support may be beneficial for quitting smoking. Whereas synergies of high domain-specific control and support may be beneficial, they only rarely occur.

Volitional processes and daily smoking: examining inter- and intraindividual associations around a quit attempt.

The Health Action Process Approach (HAPA) assumes that volitional processes are important for effective behavioral change. However, intraindividual associations have not yet been tested in the context of smoking cessation. This study examined the inter- and intraindividual associations between volitional HAPA variables and daily smoking before and after a quit attempt. Overall, 100 smokers completed daily surveys on mobile phones from 10 days before until 21 days after a self-set quit date, including self-efficacy, action planning, action control, and numbers of cigarettes smoked. Negative associations between volitional variables and daily numbers of cigarettes smoked emerged at the inter- and intraindividual level. Except for interindividual action planning, associations were stronger after the quit date than before the quit date. Self-efficacy, planning and action control were identified as critical inter- and intraindividual processes in smoking cessation, particularly after a self-set quit attempt when actual behavior change is performed.

Examining gender differences in received, provided, and invisible social control: an application of the dual-effects model.

The dual-effects model of social control not only assumes that social control leads to better health practices but also arouses psychological distress. However, findings are inconsistent. The present study advances the current literature by examining social control from a dyadic perspective in the context of smoking. In addition, the study examines whether control, continuous smoking abstinence, and affect are differentially related for men and women. Before and three weeks after a self-set quit attempt, we examined 106 smokers (77 men, mean age: 40.67, average number of cigarettes smoked per day: 16.59 [SD=8.52, range=1-40] at baseline and 5.27 [SD=6.97, range=0-40] at follow-up) and their nonsmoking heterosexual partners, assessing received and provided control, continuous abstinence, and affect. With regard to smoker's affective reactions, partner's provided control was related to an increase in positive and to a decrease in negative affect, but only for female smokers. Moreover, the greater the discrepancy between smoker received and partner's provided control was the more positive affect increased and the more negative affect decreased, but again only for female smokers. These findings demonstrate that female smokers' well-being was raised over time if they were not aware of the control attempts of their nonsmoking partners, indicating positive effects of invisible social control. This study's results emphasize the importance of applying a dyadic perspective and taking gender differences in the dual-effects model of social control into account.

The interplay of received social support and self-regulatory factors in smoking cessation.

OBJECTIVE: In smoking cessation, individual self-regulation and social support have both proven to be useful. However, the roles of self-regulatory processes and social support are mostly examined separately. The present study aims at examining the unique and joint interactive effects of self-regulation as specified in the health action process approach (HAPA) and social support on smoking cessation. The study tested whether social support can compensate for low levels of self-regulation or whether synergistic effects emerge. DESIGN & MEASURES: Around a self-set quit date, 99 smokers completed baseline questionnaires on HAPA-variables, smoking-specific received social support and smoking cessation (continuous abstinence and point prevalence), with a follow-up Cpproximately 29 days after the quitdate. RESULTS: Social support moderated the association between volitional self-efficacy and smoking, as well as coping planning and smoking but not between action planning and smoking. No compensatory effect of social support for lower levels of individual regulation emerged but the combination of high levels of the individual variables and social support was related to successful smoking cessation, indicating a synergistic effect. CONCLUSIONS: The results confirm the importance of examining both self-regulation and social factors in smoking cessation. This should be considered when developing future interventions for smoking cessation.

Does social support really help to eat a low-fat diet? Main effects and gender differences of received social support within the Health Action Process Approach.

BACKGROUND: Most theories of health-behavior change focus exclusively on individual self-regulation without taking social factors, such as social support, into account. This study's first aim was to systematically test the added value of received instrumental and emotional social support within the Health Action Process Approach (HAPA) in the context of dietary change. In the social support literature, gender effects emerge with regard to the effectiveness of social support. Thus, a second aim was the examination of gender differences in the association of social support with dietary behavior. METHODS: Participants were 252 overweight and obese individuals. At baseline and 12 months later, participants completed questionnaires on HAPA variables; diet-specific received social support and low-fat diet. RESULTS: For the prediction of intentions 12 months later, instrumental support was more beneficial for men than for women over and above individual self-regulation. In terms of dietary behavior at T2, a moderate main effect of instrumental support emerged. Moreover, received emotional social support was beneficial for men, but not for women in terms of a low-fat diet 12 months later. CONCLUSIONS: Effects of received instrumental social support found in this study provide new evidence for the added value of integrating social support into the HAPA.

Testing phase-specific self-efficacy beliefs in the context of dietary behaviour change.

BACKGROUND: Self-efficacy is an important predictor of health behaviour change. Within the health action process approach (HAPA; Schwarzer, 2008), motivational and volitional self-efficacy can be distinguished. Motivational self-efficacy is assumed to serve as predictor of intention formation whereas volitional self-efficacy should be relevant for behaviour change. This study examined these assumptions in a sample with overweight and obese individuals. Moreover, we tested whether behavioural intentions moderate the association between volitional self-efficacy and behaviour. METHODS: Overall, 373 overweight and obese individuals completed a baseline and six months later a follow-up questionnaire on HAPA variables and dietary behaviour. RESULTS: A factor analysis confirmed the phase-specific separation of self-efficacy. Motivational self-efficacy emerged as predictor for behavioural intentions over and above other HAPA variables after six months, whereas volitional self-efficacy did not. Volitional self-efficacy interacted with intention in the prediction of behaviour, indicating that volitional self-efficacy is only beneficial for individuals with high levels of intentions. CONCLUSIONS: The results provide evidence for the phase-specific distinction of self-efficacy in the context of dietary change in an overweight or obese sample. Thus, differentiating between motivational and volitional self-efficacy beliefs should be considered when developing future interventions of dietary change.

Comparing different boosters of planning interventions on changes in fat consumption in overweight and obese individuals: a randomized controlled trial.

Single planning interventions have been found to promote short-term dietary change. Repeated planning interventions may foster long-term effects on behavior change. It remains unknown whether there is a critical number of boosters to establish long-term maintenance of behavioral changes. This study aimed at investigating what social-cognitive variables mediate the effects of the interventions on dietary behavior change. Overall, 373 participants (n = 270 women, 72.4%; age M = 52.42, SD = 12.79) were randomly allocated to one of five groups: a control group, a single planning group, and three groups with 3, 6, or 9 weeks' repeated planning interventions. Follow-ups took place 4, 6, and 12 months after baseline. Change in fat consumption was not promoted by any of the interventions. In terms of social-cognitive variables, intentions, self-efficacy and coping planning displayed a time × group interaction, with the 9 weeks' planning group showing the most beneficial effects. Effect sizes, however, were very small. None of the tested planning interventions successfully promoted change in fat consumption across the 12 month period. This, however, could not be explained by problems with adherence to the intervention protocol. Potential explanations for this unexpected result are discussed.