Anger, aggression, risky behavior, and crash-related outcomes in three groups of drivers.

High anger drivers who acknowledged problems with driving anger and were interested in treatment were compared to high and low anger drivers who did not acknowledge problems with driving anger or want treatment. Although high anger drivers who acknowledged problems reported greater anger on two measures than high anger drivers who did not acknowledge problems, both high anger groups tended not to differ from one another and were more frequently and intensely angered when driving, reported more aggressive and less adaptive/constructive forms of expressing anger while driving, engaged in more aggressive and risky behavior on the road, and experienced more of some accident-related outcomes than low anger drivers. High anger groups did not differ from each other, but reported more trait anxiety and anger and more outward negative and less controlled general anger expression than the low anger group. The two groups of high anger drivers, however, require different types of interventions given their state of readiness for driving anger reduction. Results were also interpreted as supportive of the state-trait model of anger and construct validity of the Driving Anger Scale.

Variances in the etiology of drug use among ethnic groups of adolescents.

OBJECTIVE: This article reviews drug use trends among ethnic groups of adolescents. It identifies similarities and differences in general, and culturally specific variables in particular, that may account for the differences in drug use rates and the consequences of drug use. METHODS: The authors review trends in drug use among minority and nonminority adolescents over the past 25 years and propose an explanatory model for understanding the factors that affect adolescent drug use. Sources of variance examined include factors common to all adolescents, factors unique to certain ethnic groups, temporal influences, location and demographic variables, developmental and socialization factors, and individual characteristics. RESULTS: Most of the variance in adolescent drug use is due to factors that are common across ethnic groups. CONCLUSION: This finding should not overshadow the importance of addressing ethnocultural issues in designing prevention or treatment interventions, however. Although the major factors leading to drug use may be common across ethnic groups, unique elements within a culture can be used effectively in interventions. Interventions also need to address culturally specific issues in order to gain acceptance within a community.

Community readiness and health services.

Community readiness theory is a practical tool for implementing changes in community health services. The theory provides methods for assessment, diagnosis, and community change. First, community key informants are asked semi-structured questions that provide information about what is occurring in the community in relation to a specific problem. The results evaluate readiness to deal with that problem on six dimensions; existing efforts, knowledge about the problem, knowledge about alternative methods or policies, leadership, resources, and community climate. The eventual result is a diagnosis of the overall stage of community readiness. There are nine stages, tolerance or no awareness, denial, vague awareness, preplanning, preparation, initiation, institutionalization or stabilization, confirmation/expansion, and professionalization. Each stage requires different forms of interventions in order to move the community to the next stage until, eventually, initiation and maintenance of health services programs and policies can be achieved.

Further evidence of reliability and validity for the driving anger expression inventory.

This study provided evidence of reliability and validity for the four scales of the Driving Anger Expression Inventory. Alpha reliabilities for scales ranged from .84 to .89. Measures of aggressive anger expression while driving (Verbal Aggressive Expression, Personal Physical Aggressive Expression, and Use of the Vehicle to Express Anger scales) correlated positively with each other and negatively with the Adaptive/Constructive Expression scale. Scores on the three aggressive forms of anger expression correlated positively with trait anger and measures of driving-related anger, aggression, and risky behavior, whereas scores on the Adaptive/Constructive Expression scale correlated negatively with these variables. Reports of aggressive and risky behavior correlated most strongly with the Use of the Vehicle to Express Anger scale. Forms of anger expression were minimally or uncorrelated with rated trait anxiety and reports of moving violations, close calls, and accidents. Findings replicated earlier findings and provided further evidence for the reliability and validity of the Driving Anger Expression Inventory.

Primary socialization theory. Developmental stages, spirituality, government institutions, sensation seeking, and theoretical implications. V.

This fifth and final paper in the series on primary socialization theory includes discussion of issues raised by participants in a forum on the theory. The theory states that drug use and deviant behaviors occur as an outcome of bonding with primary socialization sources and the transmission of norms through those sources. Personal traits and secondary socialization sources influence drug use and deviance indirectly and through their effects on the primary socialization process. Developmentally, the only primary socialization source for the preschool child is the family. In early grade school years, the primary socialization sources are the family and school. Peer clusters emerge as a primary socialization source later, with their greatest effect occurring during adolescence. Adults have varied primary socialization patterns. Levels of ego development among adults may alter the primary socialization process. Spirituality is defined, and its influence on drug use is discussed. Government institutions, such as the criminal justice system, welfare, and child protective services, are now included among secondary socialization sources. The fact that the general theory of primary socialization is not ethnocentric or temporocentric is discussed. Implications of the theory for understanding existing or potential risk and protective factors for deviance, and for improving the effectiveness of prevention and treatment are discussed. [Translations are provided in the International Abstracts Section of this issue.]

Readiness for drug use prevention in rural minority communities.

An assessment of community readiness for drug use prevention in rural communities indicated that most rural communities are at relatively low stages of readiness. Minority communities were particularly low in readiness, with only 2% having functioning drug prevention programs. Rural communities at different levels of readiness require different types of programs to increase readiness, i.e., communities at the no awareness stage require analysis of the historical and cultural issues that support tolerance of drug use, those at the denial and vague awareness stages need specific information about local problems, and communities at the preplanning and preparation stages need information about effective programs, help in identifying resources, and assistance with staff training. In addition, building and maintaining effective programs requires continued evolution of readiness through the stages of initiation, stabilization, confirmation and expansion, and professionalization. Revised and updated scales and methods for assessing community readiness are provided.

Primary socialization theory: culture, ethnicity, and cultural identification. The links between culture and substance use. IV.

Ethnicity, perceived membership in a cultural group, and cultural identification, the strength of one's affiliation with a group, develop primarily through interactions with the primary socialization sources, the family, the school, and peer clusters. Cultural norms for substance use are also transmitted as part of these interactions. Substance use differs across cultures; in different cultures some forms of substance use are culturally required, others are tolerated, and others are sanctioned. Ethnicity and cultural identification, therefore, should relate to substance use. However, primary socialization theory indicates that simple relationships are not likely to be found for a number of reasons: 1) All members of an ethnic group do not have the same level of cultural identification and may not, therefore, have the same conformance to substance use norms. 2) Primary socialization,sources are embedded in subcultures, and subcultures have norms that may differ from those of the larger ethnic group. 3) The individual may experience and report differing levels of cultural identification and different substance use norms in different social contexts. 4) For an individual, ethnicity and cultural identification may derive from different primary socialization sources than drug use norms.

Primary socialization theory. The influence of the community on drug use and deviance. III.

Primary socialization theory states that drug use and deviance are social behaviors learned predominantly through three sources, the family, the school, and peer clusters. This paper shows that the theory provides a parsimonious explanation of how characteristics of both the local community and the larger extended community influence drug use and deviance. These characteristics affect deviance because they either strengthen or weaken bonding with the three primary socialization sources, or affect the norms that are transmitted through the primary socialization process. The paper considers the following social structure characteristics of the local neighborhood or community: physical characteristics, rurality, ethnicity, heterogeneity, occupational type, mobility, poverty, neighborhood deviance, and age distribution. It also examines how other secondary socialization sources, the extended family, associational groups, religion, the peer environment, and the media influence the primary socialization process and, in turn, drug use and deviance.

Primary socialization theory. The role played by personal traits in the etiology of drug use and deviance. II.

Primary socialization theory proposes that drug use and deviant behaviors emerge from interactions with the primary socialization sources--the family, the school, and peer clusters. The theory further postulates that the individual's personal characteristics and personality traits do not directly relate to drug use and deviance, but, in nearly all cases, influence those outcomes only when they affect the interactions between the individual and the primary socialization sources. Interpretation of research results from the point of view of primary socialization theory suggests the following: 1) Characteristics such as depression, anxiety, and low self-esteem are related to drug use and deviance only when they have strong effects on the primary socialization process, i.e., among younger children; 2) Traits such as anger, aggression, and sensation seeking are related to drug use and deviance because these traits are more likely to influence the primary socialization process at all ages; 3) The psychopathologies that are least likely to interfere with bonding with prosocial socialization sources, the anxieties and most of the affective disorders, are less likely to have comorbidity drug dependence; and 4) Psychopathologies such as oppositional disorder, conduct disorder, attention deficit disorder, and antisocial personality are more likely to interfere with primary socialization, and the literature shows that these syndromes are also most likely to have a dual diagnosis with drug dependency.

Primary socialization theory: the etiology of drug use and deviance. I.

The fundamental theorem of primary socialization theory is that normative and deviant behaviors are learned social behaviors, products of the interaction of social, psychological, and cultural characteristics, and that norms for social behaviors, including drug use, are learned predominantly in the context of interactions with the primary socialization sources. During adolescence, learning of social behaviors is frequently dominated by interactions with peer clusters. There are a number of additional postulates: 1) The strength of the bonds between the youth and the primary socialization sources is a major factor in determining how effectively norms are transmitted. 2) Any socialization link can transmit deviant norms, but healthy family and school systems are more likely to transmit prosocial norms. 3) Peer clusters can transmit either prosocial or deviant norms, but the major source of deviant norms is usually peer clusters. 4) Weak family/child and/ or school/child bonds increase the chances that the youth will bond with a deviant peer cluster and will engage in deviant behaviors. 5) Weak peer bonds can also ultimately increase the changes of bonding with deviant peers. Primary socialization theory is consistent with current research, has strong implications for improving prevention and treatment, and suggests specific hypotheses for further research.

The effect of school dropout rates on estimates of adolescent substance use among three racial/ethnic groups.

OBJECTIVES: This study examined, across three racial/ethnic groups, how the inclusion of data on drug use of dropouts can alter estimates of adolescent drug use rates. METHODS: Self-report rates of lifetime prevalence and use in the previous 30 days were obtained from Mexican American, White non-Hispanic, and Native American student (n = 738) and dropouts (n = 774). Rates for the age cohort (students and dropouts) were estimated with a weighted correction formula. RESULTS: Rates of use reported by dropouts were 1.2 to 6.4 times higher than those reported by students. Corrected rates resulted in changes in relative rates of use by different ethnic groups. CONCLUSIONS: When only in-school data are available, errors in estimating drug use among groups with high rates of school dropout can be substantial. Correction of student-based data to include drug use of dropouts leads to important changes in estimated levels of drug use and alters estimates of the relative rates of use for racial/ethnic minority groups with high dropout rates.

The expression of anger and its consequences.

Cluster analysis, using TRYSYS key cluster variable analyses, on 59 anger expression items replicated Spielberger's Anger-In and Anger-Control dimensions and revealed seven additional forms of anger expression: Noisy Arguing, Verbal Assault, Physical Assault-People, Physical Assault-Objects, Reciprocal Communication, Time Out, and Direct Expression. Aggressive dimensions (Noisy Arguing, Verbal Assault, Physical Assault-People and -Objects) correlated positively with each other and with trait anger and negatively with non-aggressive forms of expression (Control, Reciprocal Communication, and Time Out). The latter were positively correlated with each other and negatively with trait anger. Forms of expression correlated logically with the frequency of eight types of anger consequences, and there was evidence of distinct relationships between anger expression and anger consequences; e.g. Physical Assault-People correlated most with frequency of physical altercations, and Noisy Arguing and Verbal Assault with the frequency of verbal fights. Males were more likely to utilize aggressive forms of expression and to suffer consequences involving physical and verbal fights and property damage. Results are discussed in terms of convergent and discriminant validity, and in terms of their implications for assessment, treatment, and future research.

Cigarette use among migrant and nonmigrant Mexican American youth: a socialization latent-variable model.

A self-report survey of cigarette use among 10th- and 12th-grade Mexican American students found no differences in rates of use by migrant status. Male students reported higher levels of lifetime, experimental, and daily smoking than female students, and 12th-grade students reported higher levels of daily smoking than 10th-grade students. A socialization model of cigarette use based on peer cluster theory was evaluated using structural equation methods, examining the effects of family strength, family tobacco use, school adjustment, religious identification, and peer tobacco associations. The basic latent-structure socialization model was supported in all groups, but final models including specific effects identified both unique and common relationships by gender and migrant status. Common patterns across groups suggest that completely different prevention programs may not be necessary for these youth. However, program elements based on subtle group differences may serve to tailor prevention efforts and make them more effective.

Correlations among maternal rejection, dropping out of school, and drug use in adolescents: a pilot study.

Rejection and hostility scores of mothers whose sons had dropped out of school and of mothers whose sons were in good standing academically formed non-overlapping distributions. All mothers of drop-outs had higher hostility and rejection scores than mothers whose sons were doing well academically. Scores of mothers whose sons were still in school, but who were experiencing academic problems, fell midway between these two groups and were significantly different from both. Maternal rejection and hostility also correlated significantly with drug use. Possible causal linkages among these phenomena and clinical and preventive implications were discussed briefly.

A critical incident model for considering issues in cross-cultural research. Failures in cultural sensitivity.

This paper consider anecdotes obtained from researchers which relate to issues in cross-cultural studies. The anecdotes are described and the relevant cross-cultural issues are outlined and discussed. Recommendations are made to help researchers conduct studies which are more culturally sensitive.

Substance use among Hungarian students.

There is very little empirical data on drug and alcohol use among Hungarian adolescents. The purpose of this pilot project was to develop instrumentation and methods that could be used to assess legal and illegal substance use among Hungarian adolescents. A Hungarian translation of The American Drug and Alcohol Survey was developed and adapted to the unique circumstances of Hungarian patterns of use. This survey was tested with 234 students, 135 females and 99 males, from Grades 8 and 11 enrolled in public schools, in Györ, Hungary during 1991-1992. The students reported little or no substance use other than use of alcohol and tobacco. Older students were more likely than younger students to be involved with alcohol and cigarettes. Females and males were equally likely to try alcohol, but males were more likely to have been drunk than females. Despite the low reported use of substances other than alcohol and tobacco, students demonstrated attitudes toward drug use that may place them "at risk" for future use.