Nurses' perceptions of simulation-based interprofessional training program for rapid response and code blue events.

Following completion of an interprofessional simulation program for rapid response and code blue events, we explored hospital unit nurses' perspectives of the training, through a mixed-methods analysis. The results of this study advocate for the use of simulation training in preparing nurses and promoting communication among team members, effective teamwork, and early recognition of clinically deteriorating patients. This study provides support for the implementation and continued use of simulation interprofessional programs in hospital settings.

An alternative practice model: residents transform continuity clinic and become systems thinkers.

BACKGROUND: A changing health care environment has created a need for physicians trained in health system improvement. Residency programs have struggled to teach and assess practice-based learning and improvement and systems-based practice competencies, particularly within ambulatory settings. INTERVENTION: We describe a resident-created and resident-led quality and practice-improvement council in an internal medicine continuity clinic. We conducted focus groups and report on residents' perspectives on council membership, practice management experiences, quality improvement projects, and resident satisfaction. METHOD: Focus groups were held from May 2009 to March 2010 with internal medicine residents (N  =  5/focus group) who participated in the Continuity Clinic Ownership in Resident Education (CCORE) council. Data were analyzed with a grounded theory approach. RESULTS: DURING THE FOCUS GROUPS, RESIDENTS RESPONDED TO THE QUESTION: "Do you have any new insights into delivering quality patient care in an outpatient clinic as a result of this experience (CCORE membership)?" The qualitative analysis resulted in 6 themes: systems thinking and systems-based care skills; improving quality of patient care; improved clinic efficiency; ownership of patients; need for improved communication of practice changes; and a springboard for research. CONCLUSIONS: CCORE residents participated in system changes and acquired leadership skills while working on practice-based and system problems in a clinic microsystem. We believe this model can be implemented by other residency programs to promote the development of systems thinking in residents, increase their ownership of continuity clinic, and empower them to implement system changes.

Systems-based practice in graduate medical education: systems thinking as the missing foundational construct.

BACKGROUND: Since 2001, residencies have struggled with teaching and assessing systems-based practice (SBP). One major obstacle may be that the competency alone is not sufficient to support assessment. We believe the foundational construct underlying SBP is systems thinking, absent from the current Accreditation Council for Graduate Medical Education competency language. SUMMARY: Systems thinking is defined as the ability to analyze systems as a whole. The purpose of this article is to describe psychometric issues that constrain assessment of SBP and elucidate the role of systems thinking in teaching and assessing SBP. CONCLUSION: Residency programs should incorporate systems thinking models into their curricula. Trainees should be taught to understand systems at an abstract level, in order to analyze their own healthcare systems, and participate in quality and patient safety activities. We suggest that a developmental trajectory for systems thinking be developed, similar to the model described by Dreyfus and Dreyfus.

What can medical education learn from the neurobiology of learning?

The last several decades have seen a large increase in knowledge of the underlying biological mechanisms that serve learning and memory. The insights gleaned from neurobiological and cognitive neuroscientific experimentation in humans and in animal models have identified many of the processes at the molecular, cellular, and systems levels that occur during learning and the formation, storage, and recall of memories. Moreover, with the advent of noninvasive technologies to monitor patterns of neural activity during various forms of human cognition, the efficacy of different strategies for effective teaching can be compared. Considerable insight has also been developed as to how to most effectively engage these processes to facilitate learning, retention, recall, and effective use and application of the learned information. However, this knowledge has not systematically found its way into the medical education process. Thus, there are considerable opportunities for the integration of current knowledge about the biology of learning with educational strategies and curricular design. By teaching medical students in ways that use this knowledge, there is an opportunity to make medical education easier and more effective. The authors present 10 key aspects of learning that they believe can be incorporated into effective teaching paradigms in multiple ways. They also present recommendations for applying the current knowledge of the neurobiology of learning throughout the medical education continuum.

Enhancing competency in professionalism: targeting resident advance directive education.

BACKGROUND: Education about advance directives typically is incorporated into medical school curricula and is not commonly offered in residency. Residents' experiences with advance directives are generally random, nonstandardized, and difficult to assess. In 2008, an advance directive curriculum was developed by the Scott & White/Texas A&M University System Health Science Center College of Medicine (S&W/Texas A&M) internal medicine residency program and the hospital's legal department. A pilot study examining residents' attitudes and experiences regarding advance directives was carried out at 2 medical schools. METHODS: In 2009, 59 internal medicine and family medicine residents (postgraduate year 2-3 [PGY-2, 3]) completed questionnaires at S&W/Texas A&M (n  =  32) and The University of Texas Medical School at Houston (n  =  27) during a validation study of knowledge about advance directives. The questionnaire contained Likert-response items assessing attitudes and practices surrounding advance directives. Our analysis included descriptive statistics and analysis of variance (ANOVA) to compare responses across categories. RESULTS: While 53% of residents agreed/strongly agreed they had "sufficient knowledge of advance directives, given my years of training," 47% disagreed/strongly disagreed with that statement. Most (93%) agreed/strongly agreed that "didactic sessions on advance directives should be offered by my hospital, residency program, or medical school." A test of responses across residency years with ANOVA showed a significant difference between ratings by PGY-2 and PGY-3 residents on 3 items: "Advance directives should only be discussed with patients over 60," "I have sufficient knowledge of advance directives, given my years of training," and "I believe my experience with advance directives is adequate for the situations I routinely encounter." CONCLUSION: Our study highlighted the continuing need for advance directive resident curricula. Medical school curricula alone do not appear to be sufficient for residents' needs in this area.

Students learn systems-based care and facilitate system change as stakeholders in a free clinic experience.

Systems-based practice (SBP) is rarely taught or evaluated during medical school, yet is one of the required competencies once students enter residency. We believe Texas A&M College of Medicine students learn about systems issues informally, as they care for patients at a free clinic in Temple, TX. The mandatory free clinic rotation is part of the Internal Medicine clerkship and does not include formal instruction in SBP. During 2008-2009, a sample of students (n = 31) on the IMED clerkship's free clinic rotation participated in a program evaluation/study regarding their experiences. Focus groups (M = 5 students/group) were held at the end of each outpatient rotation. Students were asked: "Are you aware of any system issues which can affect either the delivery of or access to care at the free clinic?" Data saturation was reached after six focus groups, when investigators noted a repetition of responses. Based upon investigator consensus opinion, data collection was discontinued. Based upon a content analysis, six themes were identified: access to specialists, including OB-GYN, was limited; cost containment; lack of resources affects delivery of care; delays in care due to lack of insurance; understanding of larger healthcare system and free clinic role; and delays in tests due to language barriers. Medical students were able to learn about SBP issues during free clinic rotations. Students experienced how SBP issues affected the health care of uninsured individuals. We believe these findings may be transferable to medical schools with mandatory free clinic rotations.

The patient panel conference experience: what patients can teach our residents about competency issues.

PURPOSE: In 2007, the Scott & White/Texas A&M HSC College of Medicine began requiring all internal medicine residents to attend quarterly patient panel conferences, during which former Scott & White patients speak frankly about their inpatient and outpatient experiences. The main purpose of this mixed-methods pilot study was to determine whether residents' competency education could be enhanced via the conferences. METHOD: Of the 54 internal medicine residents in the residency program, 31, 39, and 41 participated in three patient panel conferences, respectively, between December 2007 and August 2008. Each resident completed an assessment that included a reflection on his or her own practice and the identification of competency issues highlighted by patients' oral narratives. Content analyses of responses to open-ended questions were performed. Consensus on themes was reached. Descriptive statistics were run on quantitative data. RESULTS: Six themes were identified: improve communication with patients/families, improve patient care, improve professional behaviors, empathize with patients/families, display sensitivity to patients'/families' needs/concerns, and recognize system issues. When asked if the conference highlighted competency problems, residents answered "agree" or "strongly agree" as follows: 82% for professionalism, 82.9% for systems-based practice, 85.2% for interpersonal and communication skills, and 84.4% for patient care. The majority were able to provide examples of competency issues. CONCLUSIONS: The patient panel conference experience was a powerful mechanism for enhancing competency education. The conferences were an effective means of presenting real-life examples of systems issues in the context of a hospital system.

Using simulation to orient code blue teams to a new hospital facility.

OBJECTIVES: Prompt and successful cardiopulmonary resuscitation during a sudden cardiac arrest can be hindered by multiple variables, ie, ineffective communication, stress, lack of training, and an unfamiliar environment, such as a new hospital facility. The main objective of the study was to use high-fidelity simulations to orient Code Blue Teams (CBTs) to critical events in a new hospital facility. A secondary objective was to elucidate factors that may have contributed to responses by debriefing teams. METHODS: Mock Code Blue exercises using high-fidelity simulation were implemented in real workplace settings to orient CBTs to critical events. We measured arrival time of first responder, crash cart to code site, first six CBT responders, first chest compression, and first electrical shock. After each mock code, participants were debriefed to assess any barriers to effective response and decision making. RESULTS: Twelve mock codes were conducted at different locations of the new facility. Sixty-nine percent of the participants reported that the training was beneficial. The median time of arrival of the first responders was 42 seconds and the first CBT member was 66 seconds. The median time to initiation of chest compressions was 80 seconds, crash cart arrival was 68 seconds, and first electrical shock was 341 seconds. An additional outcome of the study was the identification of facility and systems issues that had the potential to impact patient safety. CONCLUSIONS: Clinical simulation can be effectively used to orient CBTs and identify critical safety issues in a newly constructed healthcare facility.

Procedural and interpretive skills of medical students: experiences and attitudes of fourth-year students.

BACKGROUND: Recent data do not exist regarding fourth-year medical students' performance of and attitudes toward procedural and interpretive skills, and how these differ from third-year students'. METHOD: Cross-sectional survey conducted in February 2006 of 122 fourth-year students from seven U.S. medical schools, compared with their responses in summer 2005. Students estimated their cumulative performance of 22 skills and reported self-confidence and perceived importance using a five-point Likert-type scale. RESULTS: The response rate was 79% (96/122). A majority reported never having performed cardioversion, thoracentesis, cardiopulmonary resuscitation, blood culture, purified protein derivative placement, or paracentesis. One fifth of students had never performed peripheral intravenous catheter insertion, phlebotomy, or arterial blood sampling. Students reported increased cumulative performance of 17 skills, increased self-confidence in five skills, and decreased perceived importance in three skills (two-sided P < .05). CONCLUSIONS: A majority of fourth-year medical students still have never performed important procedures, and a substantial minority have not performed basic procedures.

The effect of two different faculty development interventions on third-year clerkship performance evaluations.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: Clinical performance evaluations of medical students often fail to identify significant deficiencies. Many physicians are unwilling to give a poor or failing performance evaluation. Consequently, many clinical rotation grades are inflated and do not reflect actual student performance. We developed a computer-based faculty development tutorial designed to teach faculty members to use defined standards in the evaluation process and to give accurate performance grades to students and residents. METHODS: We administered the tutorial to 25 family medicine faculty members. Immediate posttests and 3-month posttests were given to determine their mastery of the material. Grades were tracked for 2 years prior to the intervention and for the year following the intervention. After the 1-year intervention, the clerkship director went to each site and met directly with each faculty member. The computer tutorial material was reviewed again with faculty members. Grades for this academic year were tracked and compared with the control years and first intervention year. RESULTS: The faculty demonstrated mastery of the material and retention at 3 months, yet the grades for the first year following the computer tutorial by itself did not change. However, after establishing a face-to-face intervention, the grades were significantly lower overall, compared to the control (88.3 versus 91.8). CONCLUSIONS: Self-directed, computer-based faculty development resulted in knowledge mastery and retention but was by itself not enough to change faculty grading practices. An additional face-to-face intervention did change grading practices. Faculty development via independent study may provide basic knowledge, but it must be combined with direct interaction, feedback, and policy change to influence clinical grading practices.

Complying with ACGME resident duty hours restrictions: restructuring the 80-hour workweek to enhance education and patient safety at Texas A&M/Scott & White Memorial Hospital.

Compliance with the Accreditation Council for Graduate Medical Education resident duty hours rules has created unique educational and patient-care challenges for the general medicine inpatient teaching (GMIT) teams at Texas A&M/Scott & White Memorial Hospital, including multiple patient hand-offs, multiple resident absences during teaching time, and loss of continuity of care for individual patients, all of which may have compromised patient safety. The Texas A&M/Scott & White Memorial Hospital internal medicine residency program initially complied with the duty hours rules by having residents take call every fourth night, followed by a six-hour post-call day. This system proved to be inefficient because it significantly disrupted patient care and resident education. Residents reported that this call system frequently caused them to approach the 80-hour limit and that they had difficulty leaving post-call because of unfulfilled responsibilities. They also reported sleep interruption and inadequate time to prepare for and attend educational conferences.After determining the peak admission times at the hospital, program leaders designed a call system during which the primary call team takes admissions from 12:00 pm to 8:00 pm each day, then leaves by 10:00 pm and returns after 10 hours for a full post-call day. After-hours admissions are managed by hospitalists. The solution did require hiring additional hospitalists for night-call coverage. The new structure has greatly improved the residents' experience on the GMIT teams. The entire team works together on call and post-call. Rounds and inpatient teaching continue normally on post-call days. Residents attend clinics and conferences post-call. Hand-offs are reduced greatly, and residents report that they are better rested. Residents also state that the new call system significantly enhances their education, patient care, and personal life.

Procedural and interpretive skills of medical students: experiences and attitudes of third-year students.

BACKGROUND: Recent data do not exist on medical students' performance of and attitudes toward procedural and interpretive skills deemed important by medical educators. METHOD: A total of 171 medical students at seven medical schools were surveyed regarding frequency of performance, self-confidence, and perceived importance of 21 procedural and interpretive skills. RESULTS: Of the 122 responding students (71% response rate), a majority had never performed lumbar puncture, thoracentesis, paracentesis, or blood culture, and students reported lowest self-confidence in these skills. At least one-quarter of students had never performed phlebotomy, peripheral intravenous catheter insertion, or arterial blood sampling. Students perceived all 21 skills as important to learn and perform during medical school. CONCLUSION: Through the third year of medical school, a majority of students had never performed important procedures, and a substantial minority had not performed basic procedures. Students had low self-confidence in skills they rarely performed, but perceived all skills surveyed as important.

Do attending physicians, nurses, residents, and medical students agree on what constitutes medical student abuse?

BACKGROUND: Whether attending physicians, residents, nurses, and medical students agree on what constitutes medical student abuse, its severity, or influencing factors is unknown. METHOD: We surveyed 237 internal medicine attending physicians, residents, medical students, and nurses at 13 medical schools after viewing five vignettes depicting potentially abusive behaviors. RESULTS: The majority of each group felt the belittlement, ethnic insensitivity, and sexual harassment scenarios represented abuse but that excluding a student from participating in a procedure did not. Only a majority of attending physicians considered the negative feedback scenario as abuse. Medical students rated abuse severity significantly lower than other groups in the belittlement scenario (p<.05). Respondents who felt abused as students were more likely to rate behaviors as abusive (p<.05). CONCLUSIONS: The groups generally agree on what constitutes abuse, but attending physicians and those abused as students may perceive more behaviors as abusive.

Medical students' perspectives on and responses to abuse during the internal medicine clerkship.

BACKGROUND: The abuse of medical students on clinical rotations is a recognized problem, but the effects on students and their responses warrant further study. PURPOSE: To determine the severity of student abuse and the effects of abuse on students during the internal medicine clerkship. METHODS: Internal medicine clerks at 11 medical schools (N = 1,072) completed an exit survey. Students were asked whether they had been abused. If they had, they were asked about the severity of the abuse, whether they reported it, and its effects on them. RESULTS: Of the responding students, 123 (11%) believed they had been abused. Only 31% of the students who felt abused reported the episodes to someone. The most common consequences of the events included poor learning environments, lack of confidence, and feelings of depression, anger, and humiliation. CONCLUSION: Students described a variety of personal and educational effects of abuse. They generally did not report abuse because of fear of retaliation and the belief that reporting is pointless.