Prevalence of HIV, HBV and HCV among livestock merchants and slaughterhouse workers in Ibadan, Nigeria.

Background: Most studies on viral infections among livestock handlers have focused on occupational exposure from inadvertent contact with infected animals. Consequently, little emphasis is given to the effect of their lifestyle on the acquisition of other blood-borne viruses. Objectives: To determine the prevalence and assess risk factors for HIV, HBV and HCV infections among livestock handlers in Ibadan, Nigeria. Methods: Blood samples were collected from 265 livestock handlers between October 2016 to April 2017 in Ibadan. The samples were tested for the presence of antibodies to HIV and HCV; and surface antigen to HBV using ELISA. Structured questionnaire was administered to collect information on risk factors associated with the transmission of these viruses. Data analysis was carried out using Chi-square test and logistic regression to determine the association between risk factors and predictors of infection (p < 0.05). Results: Of 265 participants, 11 (4.2%), 29 (10.9%) and 13 (4.9%) individuals tested positive for HIV, HBV and HCV infections respectively. Two (0.8%) of the participants were coinfected with HIV and HBV while 1(0.4%) was coinfected with both HBV and HCV. Individuals who travelled frequently in the course of Livestock trades had a higher rate of HIV infection. Conclusions: A high Infection with HIV, HBV and HCV is common among the study participants. There is a need for continued surveillance and awareness creation on preventive measures against these viruses.

Molecular detection of SARS-CoV-2 infection in three geo-political zones of Nigeria: a cross-sectional study.

Introduction: sequel to the emergence of the Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) and its subsequent spread to all continents of the world, humans have continued to experience severe devastation to their health and economies. To control the spread of this virus, it is important to detect the infection in recently infected and asymptomatic individuals who are capable of infecting others. This study was designed to detect ongoing SARS-CoV-2 Infection among asymptomatic individuals in open markets across three geopolitical zones in Nigeria. Methods: nasal and oropharyngeal swab samples were collected from 2,158 study participants between December 20th, 2020 and March 20th, 2021 from large open markets across three geo-political zones (Southwest, Northwest and Southeast) of Nigeria. Virus RNA was extracted from these swab samples and real time reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) was carried out for the detection of SARS-CoV-2 specific genes. Data were analysed using descriptive statistics. Results: a total of 163 (7.6%) of the 2,158 participants enrolled for the study tested positive for SARS-CoV-2 by RT-PCR. The rate of infection was significantly higher in the North-western States of the country when compared to the western and Eastern regions (P=0.000). Similarly, the rate of infection was higher among buyers than sellers (P=0.000) and among males when compared with females, though the difference was not significant (p=0.31). Conclusion: this study shows that there is a continuous spread of SARS-CoV-2, especially among active, asymptomatic individuals across many States in the country. There is therefore need to continuously educate citizens on the need to adhere to both the non-pharmaceutical and pharmaceutical preventive measures to protect themselves and ultimately curb the spread of the virus.

Megakaryocytes respond during sepsis and display innate immune cell behaviors.

Megakaryocytes (MKs) are precursors to platelets, the second most abundant cells in the peripheral circulation. However, while platelets are known to participate in immune responses and play significant functions during infections, the role of MKs within the immune system remains largely unexplored. Histological studies of sepsis patients identified increased nucleated CD61+ cells (MKs) in the lungs, and CD61+ staining (likely platelets within microthrombi) in the kidneys, which correlated with the development of organ dysfunction. Detailed imaging cytometry of peripheral blood from patients with sepsis found significantly higher MK counts, which we predict would likely be misclassified by automated hematology analyzers as leukocytes. Utilizing in vitro techniques, we show that both stem cell derived MKs (SC MKs) and cells from the human megakaryoblastic leukemia cell line, Meg-01, undergo chemotaxis, interact with bacteria, and are capable of releasing chromatin webs in response to various pathogenic stimuli. Together, our observations suggest that MK cells display some basic innate immune cell behaviors and may actively respond and play functional roles in the pathophysiology of sepsis.

Molecular detection of SARS-CoV-2 infection in three geo-political zones of Nigeria: a cross-sectional study

Introduction: sequel to the emergence of the Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) and its subsequent spread to all continents of the world, humans have continued to experience severe devastation to their health and economies. To control the spread of this virus, it is important to detect the infection in recently infected and asymptomatic individuals who are capable of infecting others. This study was designed to detect ongoing SARS-CoV-2 Infection among asymptomatic individuals in open markets across three geopolitical zones in Nigeria. Methods: nasal and oropharyngeal swab samples were collected from 2,158 study participants between December 20th, 2020 and March 20th, 2021 from large open markets across three geo-political zones (Southwest, Northwest and Southeast) of Nigeria. Virus RNA was extracted from these swab samples and real time RT-PCR was carried out for the detection of SARS-CoV-2 specific genes. Data was analysed using descriptive statistics. Results: a total of 163 (7.6%) of the 2,158 participants enrolled for the study tested positive for SARS-CoV-2 by RT-PCR. The rate of infection was significantly higher in the North-western states of the country when compared to the western and Eastern regions (P=0.000). Similarly, the rate of infection was higher among buyers than sellers (P=0.000) and among males when compared with females, though the difference was not significant (p=0.31). Conclusion: this study shows that there is a continuous spread of SARS-CoV-2, especially among active, asymptomatic individuals across many states in the country. There is therefore need to continuously educate citizens on the need to adhere to both the non-pharmaceutical and pharmaceutical preventive measures to protect themselves and ultimately curb the spread of the virus.

Virological investigation of fatal rabies in a minor bitten by a mongrel in Nigeria.

Rabies is a deadly viral disease transmitted through bites of infected animals. Outbreaks continue to escalate in Africa, with fatalities in humans, especially in rural areas, but are rarely reported. About 40% casualties occur among children of < 15 years. A 5-year-old boy on referral from a Primary Health Care Centre to a tertiary hospital presented with anxiety, confusion, agitation, hydrophobia, photo-phobia and aero-phobia, seven weeks after he was bitten by a stray dog in a rural community in Nigeria. The patient did not receive post-exposure prophylaxis and died 48 hours post admission. Confirmatory diagnosis was rabies and the phylogenetic analysis of the partial N-gene sequence of the virus localized it to Africa 2 (genotype 1) Lyssaviruses. There was 95.7-100% and 94.9-99.5% identity between the isolate and other genotype 1 Lyssaviruses and 100% homology with rabies viruses from Mali, Burkina Faso, Senegal and Central African Republic.

New infections and HIV-1 subtypes among febrile persons and blood donors in Oyo State, Nigeria.

PURPOSE: There were approximately 37.9 million persons infected with HIV in 2018 globally, resulting in 770,000 deaths annually. Over 50% of this infection and deaths occur in sub-Saharan Africa, with countries like Nigeria being seriously affected. Nigeria has one of the highest rates of new infections globally. To control HIV infection in Nigeria, there is a need to continually screen high-risk groups for early HIV infection and subtypes using very sensitive methods. In this study, new HIV-1 infection and circulating HIV-1 subtypes among febrile persons and blood donors were determined. Performance characteristics of three commercial EIA kits were also evaluated. METHODS: In total, 1028 participants were recruited for the study. New HIV-1 infection and subtypes were determined using enzyme immunoassays and molecular techniques, respectively. Sensitivity, specificity, predictive values, and agreements were compared among the EIA kits using PCR-confirmed HIV-positive and negative samples. RESULTS: The overall prevalence of HIV infection in this study was 5.35%. The rate of new HIV infection was significantly different (p < .03674) among 1028 febrile persons (Ibadan: 2.22%; Saki: 1.36%) and blood donors (5.07%) studied. Three subtypes, CRF02_AG, A, and G, were found among those with new HIV infection. Whereas the commercial ELISA kits had very high specificities (94.12%, 100%, and 100%) for HIV-1 detection, Alere Determine HIV-1 antibody rapid kit had the lowest sensitivity score (50%). CONCLUSION: Genetic diversity of HIV-1 strains among infected individuals in Oyo State, Nigeria, is still relatively high. This high level of diversity of HIV-1 strains may impact the reliability of diagnosis of the virus in Nigeria and other African countries where many of the virus strains co-circulate.

Rifabutin pharmacokinetics and safety among TB/HIV-coinfected children receiving lopinavir/ritonavir-containing second-line ART.

BACKGROUND: Treatment options are limited for TB/HIV-coinfected children who require PI-based ART. Rifabutin is the preferred rifamycin for adults on PIs, but the one study evaluating rifabutin with PIs among children was stopped early due to severe neutropenia. METHODS: We evaluated rifabutin safety and plasma pharmacokinetics among coinfected children 3-15 years of age receiving rifabutin 2.5 mg/kg daily with standard doses of lopinavir/ritonavir. The AUC0-24 at 2, 4 and 8 weeks after rifabutin initiation was described using intensive sampling and non-compartmental analysis. Clinical and laboratory toxicities were intensively monitored at 12 visits throughout the study. RESULTS: Among 15 children with median (IQR) age 13.1 (10.9-14.0) years and weight 25.5 (22.3-30.5) kg, the median (IQR) rifabutin AUC0-24 was 5.21 (4.38-6.60) µg·h/mL. Four participants had AUC0-24 below 3.8 µg·h/mL (a target for the population average exposure) at week 2 and all had AUC0-24 higher than 3.8 µg·h/mL at the 4 and 8 week visits. Of 506 laboratory evaluations during rifabutin, grade 3 and grade 4 abnormalities occurred in 16 (3%) and 2 (0.4%) instances, respectively, involving 9 (60%) children. Specifically, grade 3 (n = 4) and grade 4 (n = 1) neutropenia resolved without treatment interruption or clinical sequelae in all patients. One child died at week 4 of HIV-related complications. CONCLUSIONS: In children, rifabutin 2.5 mg/kg daily achieved AUC0-24 comparable to adults and favourable HIV and TB treatment outcomes were observed. Severe neutropenia was relatively uncommon and improved with ongoing rifabutin therapy. These data support the use of rifabutin for TB/HIV-coinfected children who require lopinavir/ritonavir.

Manuka honey microneedles for enhanced wound healing and the prevention and/or treatment of Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) surgical site infection.

Manuka honey (MH) is currently used as a wound treatment and suggested to be effective in Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) elimination. We sought to optimize the synthesis of MH microneedles (MHMs) while maintaining the MH therapeutic effects. MHMs were synthesized using multiple methods and evaluated with in vitro assays. MHMs demonstrated excellent bactericidal activity against MRSA at concentrations ≥ 10% of honey, with vacuum-prepared honey appearing to be the most bactericidal, killing bacterial concentrations as high as 8 × 107 CFU/mL. The wound-healing assay demonstrated that, at concentrations of 0.1%, while the cooked honey had incomplete wound closure, the vacuum-treated honey trended towards faster wound closure. In this study, we demonstrate that the method of MHM synthesis is crucial to maintaining MH properties. We optimized the synthesis of MHMs and demonstrated their potential utility in the treatment of MRSA infections as well as in wound healing. This is the first report of using MH as a substrate for the formation of dissolvable microneedles. This data supports the need for further exploration of this new approach in a wound-healing model and opens the door for the future use of MH as a component of microneedle scaffolds.

Phylogeny of partial gag, pol and env genes show predominance of HIV-1G and CRF02_AG with emerging recombinants in south-eastern Nigeria.

Human Immunodeficiency Virus is characterized by high degree of genetic diversity with marked differences in its geographic distribution even within a country. This study was designed to identify the strains of HIV-1 circulating among infected individuals in southeastern parts of Nigeria. Genomic DNA was extracted from blood samples of 30 HIV-1 infected individuals from Anambra, Delta and Imo states of southeastern Nigeria. Portions of the genome corresponding to entire p24 gag, entire protease and C2-V3 env genes were amplified by nested PCR, sequenced using Sanger's method and phylogenetically analysed. Out of the 30 samples sequenced, 17, 28 and 14 readable sequences were obtained for gag, pol and env regions respectively. The most prevalent subtypes were CRF02_AG (41.2% in gag, 57.1% in pol protease and 50.0% in env) and G (29.4% in gag, 35.7% in pol protease and 35.7% in env). Other subtypes identified include A (17.7% in gag, 7.1% in env) and J (7.1% in env). Also 2 sequences each in gag (11.8%) and pol protease (7.1%) regions were unclassified but preliminary analysis showed they are recombinants. Furthermore, 71.4% of the isolates with sequences in the 3 regions and 26.7% of those with sequences in 2 genomic regions were recombinant forms. CRF02_AG and subtype G are the predominant HIV-1 strains circulating among infected individuals in southeastern Nigeria. Preliminary analysis results of unclassified sequences suggest that they are new recombinants.

Polymorphisms and drug resistance analysis of HIV-1 isolates from patients on first line antiretroviral therapy (ART) in South-eastern Nigeria.

Acquisition of resistance mutations by HIV-1 isolates causes treatment failure among infected patients receiving antiretroviral therapy (ART). This study determined patterns of drug-resistance mutations (DRMs) among HIV-1 isolates from patients receiving first-line ART in South-eastern Nigeria. Blood samples were collected from HIV-1 infected patients accessing antiretroviral treatment centers at General Hospital Awo-Omamma, Imo state, State Hospital Asaba, Delta state and St Joseph's Catholic Hospital Adazi, Anambra state and used for HIV-1 DNA sequencing and phylogenetic analysis. DRMs were scored using combination of Stanford algorithm and the 2015 International Antiviral Society-USA list while drug susceptibility was predicted using Stanford algorithm. Twenty eight of the HIV-1 isolates were sequenced and identified as subtypes G (35.7%), CRF02_AG (57.1%) and unclassifiable, UG (7.1%). Major PI resistance-associated mutations were identified at two sites including M46L (16.7% of subtype G/UG) and V82L (6.3% of CRF02_AG). Minor PI resistance-associated mutations identified among subtype G/UG are L10V/I (8.3%) and K20I (100%) while L10V/I (50%), K20I (100%), L33F (6.3%) and N88D (6.3%) were identified among CRF02_AG. Other polymorphisms found include; I13V/A, E35Q, M36I/L, N37D/S/E/H, R57K/G, L63T/P/S/Q, C67E/S, H69K/R, K70R, V82I and L89M in the range of 28.6% to 100% among the different subtypes. Interpretation based on Stanford algorithm showed that Darunavir/ritonavir is the only regimen whose potency was not compromised by the circulating mutations. Identification of major and minor PI resistance mutations in this study underscores the need for drug resistance testing prior to initiation of second line antiretroviral therapy in Nigeria.

Early HIV infection is associated with reduced proportions of gamma delta T subsets as well as high creatinine and urea levels.

Renal dysfunctions are major predictors of co-morbidities and mortality in HIV-infected individuals. Unconventional T cells have been shown to regulate kidney functions. However, there is dearth of information on the effect of HIV-associated nephropathies on γδ and DN T cells. It is also not clear whether γδ T cell perturbations observed during the early stages of HIV infection occur before immune activation. In this study, we investigated the relationship between creatinine and urea on the number of unconventional T cells in HIV-infected individuals at the early and chronic stages of infection. Persons in the chronic stage of infection were divided into treatment naïve and exposed groups. Treatment exposed individuals were further subdivided into groups with undetectable and detectable HIV-1RNA in their blood. Creatinine and urea levels were significantly higher among persons in the early HIV infection compared with the other groups. Proportions of γδ T, γδ + CD8, γδ + CD16 cells were also significantly reduced in the early stage of HIV infection (P < .01). Markers of immune activation, CD4 + HLA-DR and CD8 + HLA-DR, were also significantly reduced during early HIV infection (P < .01). Taken together, our findings suggest that high levels of renal markers as well as reduced proportions of gamma delta T cells are associated with the early stages of HIV infection. This event likely occurs before systemic immune activation reaches peak levels. This study provides evidence for the need for early HIV infection diagnosis and treatment.

Low levels of HIV-1 drug resistance mutations in patients who achieved viral re-suppression without regimen switch: a retrospective study.

BACKGROUND: We identified a HIV-positive cohort in virologic failure (VF) who re-suppressed without drug switch. We characterized their drug resistance mutations (DRM) and adherence profiles to learn how to better manage HIV drug resistance. A retrospective cohort study utilizing clinical data and stored samples. Patients received ART at three Nigerian treatment centres. Plasma samples stored when they were in VF were genotyped. RESULT: Of 126 patients with samples available, 57 were successfully genotyped. From ART initiation, the proportion of patients with adherence ≥90% increased steadily from 54% at first high viral load (VL) to 67% at confirmed VF, and 81% at time of re-suppressed VL. Sixteen (28%) patients had at least one DRM. Forty-six (81%) patients had full susceptibility to the three drugs in their first-line (1 L) regimen. Thirteen (23%) were resistant to at least one antiretroviral drug but three were resistant to drugs not used in Nigeria. Ten patients had resistance to their 1 L drug(s) and six were fully susceptible to the three drugs in the recommended second-line regimen. CONCLUSION: This cohort had little drug resistance mutations. We conclude that if adherence is not assured, patients could exhibit virologic failure without having developed mutations associated with drug resistance.

Non-synonymous Substitutions in HIV-1 GAG Are Frequent in Epitopes Outside the Functionally Conserved Regions and Associated With Subtype Differences.

In 2019, 38 million people lived with HIV-1 infection resulting in 690,000 deaths. Over 50% of this infection and its associated deaths occurred in Sub-Saharan Africa. The West African region is a known hotspot of the HIV-1 epidemic. There is a need to develop an HIV-1 vaccine if the HIV epidemic would be effectively controlled. Few protective cytotoxic T Lymphocytes (CTL) epitopes within the HIV-1 GAG (HIV_gagconsv) have been previously identified to be functionally conserved among the HIV-1 M group. These epitopes are currently the focus of universal HIV-1 T cell-based vaccine studies. However, these epitopes' phenotypic and genetic properties have not been observed in natural settings for HIV-1 strains circulating in the West African region. This information is critical as the usefulness of universal HIV-1 vaccines in the West African region depends on these epitopes' occurrence in strains circulating in the area. This study describes non-synonymous substitutions within and without HIV_gagconsv genes isolated from 10 infected Nigerians at the early stages of HIV-1 infection. Furthermore, we analyzed these substitutions longitudinally in five infected individuals from the early stages of infection till after seroconversion. We identified three non-synonymous substitutions within HIV_gagconsv genes isolated from early HIV infected individuals. Fourteen and nineteen mutations outside the HIV_gagconsv were observed before and after seroconversion, respectively, while we found four mutations within the HIV_gagconsv. These substitutions include previously mapped CTL epitope immune escape mutants. CTL immune pressure likely leaves different footprints on HIV-1 GAG epitopes within and outside the HIV_gagconsv. This information is crucial for universal HIV-1 vaccine designs for use in the West African region.

Going Beyond Giving Antiretroviral Therapy: Multimorbidity in Older People Aging with HIV in Nigeria.

"Graying of HIV epidemic" is observed globally, as people living with HIV (PLWH) are aging, due to effectiveness of antiretrovirals. The normal aging processes and HIV-induced immune dysfunction, are potential mechanisms, driving multimorbidity (MM) in PLWH. MM is the concurrent presence of two or more diseases in a single individual. Aging PLWH, are at increased risk of acute and chronic morbidities compared with counterpart without HIV. Despite increasing concern in Nigeria, research on correlates of MM in aging PLWH is lagging. This was a comparative study, of ≥60 years of age, age-matched (±5 years) HIV-positive and HIV-negative patients. Patients were recruited, from the Infectious Disease Institute and Geriatric clinics of the University College Hospital, Ibadan, Nigeria, between April and June 2018. MM was defined as the occurrence of more than two morbidities in an individual, and it was considered acute, when within 30 days and chronic, when above 3-months duration. Data analysis was done using SPSS 23. We studied 186 individuals (62 HIV-positive and 124 HIV-negative). The PLWH had lower mean age (63.9 vs. 68.1 years, p = .00, t = 5.68), more chronic MM (2.0 vs. 1.3, p = .004, t = 2.970), which occurred earlier (4.7 vs. 9.6 years, p = .003, t = 3.05), more overall MM (3.6 vs. 2.8, p = .015, t = 2.448), and lower quality of life (82.7 vs. 86.2, p = .002, t = 3.130). Risk estimates for "any" MM revealed the odds are in favor of the older PLWH [69.4% vs. 46.8%, p = .004, odds ratio = 0.388 (95% confidence interval = 0.204-0.740)]. Logistic regression revealed, age >64 years, higher total body fat, lower nadir CD4 counts, and longer duration of HIV infection, were significantly associated with MM in aging PLWH (p = .019). Older individuals with HIV on antiretrovirals in Ibadan, had a significantly greater burden of MM compared with those without HIV. HIV treatment programs in Nigeria will need to adapt a comprehensive health care plan for aging PLWH.

Correction: Phylogenetic analysis of hepatitis C virus among HIV/ HCV co-infected patients in Nigeria.

[This corrects the article DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0210724.].

Molecular characterisation of genital human papillomavirus among women in Southwestern, Nigeria.

BACKGROUND: Persistent infections with high-risk genital Human papillomavirus (HPV) especially types 16 and 18, are associated with cervical cancer. However, distribution of HPV types varies greatly across geographical regions and the available vaccines target only few types. This study was designed to determine the HPV types circulating in Southwestern Nigeria, thereby providing necessary information for effective control of the virus. METHODS: Endocervical swab samples were collected from a total of 295 consenting women attending routine cervical cancer screening, STI clinics and community-based outreach programme. Viral DNA was extracted from the samples and the consensus region of the HPV DNA was amplified by PCR using GP-E6/E7 primers. Type-specific nested multiplex PCR and Sanger sequencing were used to genotype the HPV isolates. RESULTS: In this study, 51 (17.3%) individuals were positive for HPV DNA using consensus primers that target the E6/E7 genes but only 48 (16.3%) were genotyped. A total of 15 HPV types (HPV-6, 16, 18, 31, 33, 35, 42, 43, 44, 52, 58, 66, 74, 81, 86) were detected, with HPV-31 being the most predominant (32.8%), followed by HPV-35 (17.2%) and HPV-16 (15.5%). Two rare HPV types; 74 and 86 were also detected. The HPV-74 isolate had three nucleotide (CCT) insertions at E7 gene that translated into amino acid proline. Highest nucleotide substitutions (n = 32) were found in HPV-44 genotype. Among positive individuals, 20.8% had dual infections and 86.2% had High-risk HPV types. CONCLUSIONS: Multiple Human papillomavirus types co-circulated in the study. Most of the circulating Human papillomavirus are high-risk type with type 31 being the most predominant. Although the implication of HPV-74 with proline insertion detected for the first time is unknown, it may have effect on the transformation potential of the virus. Polyvalent HPV vaccine will be more effective for the infection control in Nigeria.

Storage and Transportation of "HIV" RNA in Plasma Samples up to 45°C in a Lyophilized Stabilizer.

BACKGROUND: Blood or plasma samples from rural areas are often transported under suboptimal conditions to central laboratories. The negative influence of different storage temperatures during transportation as well as long transportation times on the stability of unprotected HIV RNA is well known. Therefore, the correct and reliable quantification of HIV RNA might be very difficult. A stabilization solution for the storage and transportation of plasma samples was developed which stabilizes RNA for seven days up to 45°C without viral load changes. METHODS: Blood samples from HIV positive individuals were collected into EDTA containing tubes. The isolated plasma samples in Germany were pipetted into pre-prepared RNA stabilization tubes and incubated for seven days at 45°C. HIV-1 RNA quantification was performed on a HIV-1 LCx m 2000 system from Abbott and a Qiagen/Artus HI Virus-1 RG RT-PCR Kit on a Rotor-Gene Q PCR machine. In addition, plasma samples were collected and tested using existing SOP for storage and transportation in Nigeria. Plasma samples were treated with and without stabilization solution and the AMPLICOR HIV-1 MONITORTM test was used to determine viral load. RESULTS: Seventy-four stabilized plasma samples were tested in Germany and results were compared to those tested unprotected within two hours. No significant changes of viral load were detected up to seven days and 45°C in case of stabilized samples. In contrast RNA of the same unprotected samples was no longer detectable after one day at 45°C. Additionally, 22 plasma samples were investigated on day zero and under field conditions in Nigeria without changes of the viral load after seven days under given temperature conditions. CONCLUSIONS: No cooling chain is necessary for the storage and/or transportation of plasma samples treated with the new RNA stabilization solution for up to seven days. The use of this solution to preserve plasma RNA will be very helpful in countries where the environmental temperature is higher than 30°C, thus addressing the problem of unreliable viral load results due to suboptimal storage or transportation conditions. Further, the costs of storage and transportation of samples for viral load quantification could be significantly reduced.

Serological evidence of Rift Valley fever virus infection in slaughtered ruminants in Nigeria.

The risk of exposure of slaughterhouse workers to Rift Valley fever (RVF) virus-infected animals in Nigeria was assessed by determining the prevalence of anti-RVF IgM in cattle, goats and sheep slaughtered in a major abattoir in Ibadan, Nigeria. Blood samples were collected from 290 animals in Bodija Municipal abattoir, Ibadan, Nigeria in January and February 2017 and analyzed for the presence of RVF virus using IgM Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA) and Reverse Transcriptase Polymerase Chain Reaction (RT-PCR) for detection of the virus RNA. Descriptive statistics was used to analyze data. Overall, an IgM prevalence of 0.7% (2/290) was found among the blood samples of the animals, suggesting recent exposure to the virus. Antibody was detected in the sera from a cow and one goat. RVF virus RNA was not detected in the 2 IgM positive blood samples. There was no statistically significant relationship between RVF IgM infection and some variables of the animals, including age, sex and breed (p ≥ 0.05). Results of this study indicate active RVF virus transmission in domestic livestock in Nigeria. The study emphasizes the need to embark on monitoring of human and animal populations to prevent outbreak of the virus in the country.

Phylogenetic analysis of hepatitis C virus among HIV/ HCV co-infected patients in Nigeria.

Hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection has been associated with liver disease including liver cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) in chronically-infected persons. However, in HIV/HCV co-infected patients, increased rate of progression to cirrhosis and HCC has been reported. Limited information exists regarding genetic variants of HCV circulating among co-infected patients, which could be important in the design of broadly protective vaccine and management of the disease. Here, we determined the genotypes of HCV isolates circulating among HIV/HCV co-infected patients in Ibadan, southwestern Nigeria. One hundred and twenty-five HIV/HCV IgM positive samples obtained from HIV laboratory, University of Ibadan were used for this study. HCV NS5B gene was amplified using polymerase chain reaction (PCR). The amplified NS5B gene was sequenced using gene specific primers. Twenty isolates were amplified, out of which 13 were successfully sequenced. Phylogenetic analysis of the 13 sequenced isolates showed three HCV subtypes 1a, 3a and 5a belonging to genotypes 1, 3 and 5 respectively. Ten isolates (77%) belong to subtype 5a, followed by 2 isolates (15%) subtype 1a and 1 isolate (8%) was subtype 3a. The predominant HCV genotype was 5, followed by genotype 1 (subtype 1a). The findings, as well as the observed mutations in NS5B gene, indicate the need for screening and monitoring of HIV/HCV co-infected patients. Further study to determine the phylogeny of isolates circulating in other parts of Nigeria will be carried out.

Virus genes and host correlates of pathology are markedly reduced during respiratory syncytial and influenza virus co-infection in BALB/c mice.

Globally, influenza A virus (IAV) and respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) infection remain very high. There is also a high burden of IAV and RSV co-infection in developing countries. To develop universally protective vaccines against these infections, it is imperative that viral genes and immune correlates of pathology are elucidated. As such, we profiled virus genes expressions, histopathology and immunological responses of BALB/c mice infected with RSV and/or IAV in this study. RSV A2 and/or influenza A/H3N2/Perth/16/09 (Pr/H3N2) were induced over a seven-day period in BALB/c mice. Anaesthetized BALB/c mice (12-14 g) were divided into six groups (15-20 mice per group), inoculated with 32 µl each of 3LD50 Pr/H3N2 and/or 100 TCID50 RSV. Two groups (R or I) received RSV or Pr/H3N2 intranasally. Prior infection with either RSV or Pr/H3N2 was followed with a second challenge of the other virus 24 hours post inoculation in RI and IR groups. Another set was exposed to the two viruses simultaneously (I + R group) while the last group served as healthy controls. Five to seven mice per group were euthanized at days 2, 4 and 7. Lung and spleen organs were harvested for virus genes quantitation and immune cells phenotyping respectively. I + R group showed progressive downregulation of RSV F, G, NS1 and NS2 genes. IAV PB2 and M genes had high fold increase on day 2 and 4 post infections. However, by day 7 post infection, M and PB2 fold increase was lower. Also, increased proportions of NKT and T cell subsets were observed throughout the period in I + R group. Conversely, I group was characterized by reduced NKT cell counts and enhanced CD8 T cells levels while R group only showed an increased proportion of CD8 T cells towards the peak of infection. This study shows that RSV and IAV co-infection lead to reduced virulence and pathology compared to single infections. This information is very useful in combinatorial RSV/IAV vaccine design and development.