Predictors of changes in marijuana consumption in Germany during the covid-19 pandemic.

During the Covid-19 pandemic Germany experienced its first increase in the proportion of heavy cannabis users since 1995. With the expected nationwide decriminalization of cannabis before 2025, we investigate the potential causes for that increase. Data were from the 2021 European Web Survey on Drugs (EWSD) including 762 12-month marijuana users from Germany (72.9% male, mean age = 29.5 years). Both heavy and regular cannabis consumers reported an increase in marijuana consumption during the pandemic, with infrequent users reporting a decrease. Using multinomial logistic regression, we found younger individuals (OR = 0.95 [95% CI = 0.92, 0.98]) and those not pursuing or completing higher education (OR = 1.86 [1.23, 2.81]) had increased use. Additionally, using cannabis to self-medicate (OR = 2.79 [1.56, 4.99]) and purchasing marijuana (OR = 2.26 [1.35, 3.77]) was associated with increased use. We found, relative to infrequent users, both regular (OR = 4.00 [2.39, 6.72]) and notably heavy users (OR = 31.17 [12.10, 80.32]) were more likely to use cannabis to self-medicate. Both regular (OR = 4.09 [2.47, 6.77]) and especially heavy users (OR = 13.53 [6.74, 27.16]) were also more likely to purchase marijuana. Heavy users were also more likely to be past 30-day tobacco users (OR = 5.92 [2.81, 12.45]). We identified the self-reported motivation of using cannabis to self-medicate as well as act of purchasing marijuana as having the strongest relation to being a heavy user and increasing marijuana use during the Covid-19 pandemic.

"Show Me What You Got": The Nomological Network of the Ability to Pose Facial Emotion Expressions.

Just as receptive emotional abilities, productive emotional abilities are essential for social communication. Although individual differences in receptive emotional abilities, such as perceiving and recognizing emotions, are well-investigated, individual differences in productive emotional abilities, such as the ability to express emotions in the face, are largely neglected. Consequently, little is known about how emotion expression abilities fit in a nomological network of related abilities and typical behavior. We developed a multitask battery for measuring the ability to pose emotional expressions scored with facial expression recognition software. With three multivariate studies (n1 = 237; n2 = 141; n3 = 123), we test competing measurement models of emotion posing and relate this construct with other socio-emotional traits and cognitive abilities. We replicate the measurement model that includes a general factor of emotion posing, a nested task-specific factor, and emotion-specific factors. The emotion-posing ability factor is moderately to strongly related to receptive socio-emotional abilities, weakly related to general cognitive abilities, and weakly related to extraversion. This is strong evidence that emotion posing is a cognitive interpersonal ability. This new understanding of abilities in emotion communication opens a gateway for studying individual differences in social interaction.

Do breaks in online gambling affect neuropsychological arousal? Conceptual approach and lessons learned from the TESSA-pilot trial.

Introduction: Mandatory breaks have been discussed as a harm reduction strategy in the context of gambling for several years, but their effectiveness remains unclear. The TESSA pilot study examines the association of physiological arousal (PA) and mandatory breaks during gambling with an aim to conceptualize the framework for a subsequent randomized controlled trial. Material and methods: In a one-armed experimental pilot study 28 participants engaged in a simulated online slot game with mandatory breaks. PA, disentangled into fear, anger, joy, attraction, balance, and retraction, was continuously monitored via skin conductivity and skin temperature. The occurrence of PA in distinct phases (phase 1: initiation, phase 2: pre-break, phase 3: post-break) was contrasted by multilevel logistic regression. Results: Fear and attraction did not change. Compared to phase 1, anger (OR = 0.698; p = 0.015) and joy (OR = 0.714; p = 0.032) were less likely in phase 2, with joy also being less likely in phase 3 (OR = 0.690; p = 0.023). Balance was more likely in phase 2 (OR = 5.073; p < 0.0001) than in phase 1 and less likely in phase 3 (OR = 0.348; p < 0.0001) whilst retraction declined from phase to phase. Discussion: Mandatory breaks appear suited to offset changes in PA response evolving during gambling, but a sustained effect on initial PA levels should not to be expected. However, to sensitively judge the role of breaks additional framework conditions that impact on gambling behavior (e. g. wins/losses) should be considered.

Three reasons why parental burnout is more prevalent in individualistic countries: a mediation study in 36 countries.

PURPOSE: The prevalence of parental burnout, a condition that has severe consequences for both parents and children, varies dramatically across countries and is highest in Western countries characterized by high individualism. METHOD: In this study, we examined the mediators of the relationship between individualism measured at the country level and parental burnout measured at the individual level in 36 countries (16,059 parents). RESULTS: The results revealed three mediating mechanisms, that is, self-discrepancies between socially prescribed and actual parental selves, high agency and self-directed socialization goals, and low parental task sharing, by which individualism leads to an increased risk of burnout among parents. CONCLUSION: The results confirm that the three mediators under consideration are all involved, and that mediation was higher for self-discrepancies between socially prescribed and actual parental selves, then parental task sharing, and lastly self-directed socialization goals. The results provide some important indications of how to prevent parental burnout at the societal level in Western countries.

Does the decline in Swedish adolescent drinking persist into early adulthood?

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: Sweden has experienced a substantial decrease in adolescent drinking over the past decades. Whether the reduction persists into early adulthood remains unclear. Using survey data, the present study aimed to determine whether reductions in indicators of alcohol use observed among adolescents remain in early adulthood and whether changes in alcohol intake are consistent among light/moderate and heavy drinkers. DESIGN: Data from the Swedish monthly Alcohol Monitoring Survey (2001-20) were used to construct five 5-year birth cohorts (1978-82, 1983-87, 1988-92, 1993-97 and 1998-2002). SETTING: Sweden. PARTICIPANTS: A total of n = 52 847 respondents (48% females) aged 16 and 30 years were included in this study. MEASUREMENTS: For both males and females, temporal changes in the prevalence of any drinking, the prevalence of heavy episodic drinking (HED) and total alcohol intake in the past 30 days in centilitres were analysed. FINDINGS: The prevalence of any drinking in more recent cohorts remained low until young people came into their early (females) and mid- (males) 20s. Male cohorts differed in the prevalence of HED across age, with the later cohorts showing lower odds than earlier cohorts (odds ratios between 0.54 and 0.66). Among females, no systematic differences between cohorts across age could be observed. Later male birth cohorts in light/moderate drinkers had lower alcohol intake than earlier cohorts (correlation coefficients between -0.09 and -0.54). No statistically significant cohort effects were found for male heavy drinkers. Although differences in alcohol intake among females diminished as age increased, the cohorts did not differ systematically in their level of alcohol intake. CONCLUSIONS: In Sweden, the reduced uptake of drinking in adolescents appears to fade as people move into adulthood. Observed reductions in alcohol intake among light and moderate drinkers appear to persist into adulthood. More recent male cohorts show a lower prevalence rate of heavy episodic drinking.

Trends and projection in the proportion of (heavy) cannabis use in Germany from 1995 to 2021.

AIMS: To measure the current trends of cannabis use in Germany, measure trends in the proportion of heavy cannabis users and estimate future cannabis use rates. DESIGN: Repeated waves of the Epidemiological Survey on Substance Abuse, a cross-sectional survey conducted between 1995 and 2021 with a two-stage participant selection strategy where respondents completed a survey on substance use delivered through the post, over the telephone or on-line. SETTING: Germany. PARTICIPANTS/CASES: German-speaking participants aged between 18 and 59 years living in Germany who self-reported on their cannabis use in the past 12 months (n = 78 678). With the application of a weighting scheme, the data are nationally representative. MEASUREMENTS: Questions on the frequency of cannabis use in the past 12 months and self-reported changes in frequency of use due to the COVID-19 pandemic. FINDINGS: The prevalence of past 12-month cannabis users increased from 4.4% [95% confidence interval (CI) = 3.7, 5.1] in 1995 to 10.0% (95% CI = 8.9, 11.3) in 2021. Modeling these trends revealed a significant increase that accelerated over the past decade. The proportion of heavy cannabis users [cannabis use (almost) daily or at least 200 times per year] among past-year users has remained steady from 1995 (11.4%, 95% CI = 7.7, 16.5) to 2018 (9.5%, 95% CI = 7.6, 11.9), but significantly increased to 15.7% (95% CI = 13.1, 18.8) in 2021 during the COVID-19 pandemic. Extrapolating from these models, the prevalence of 12-month cannabis users in 2024 is expected to range between 10.4 and 15.0%, while the proportion of heavy cannabis users is unclear. CONCLUSIONS: Trends from 1995 to 2021 suggest that the prevalence of past 12-month cannabis users in Germany will continue to increase, with expected rates between 10.4 and 15.0% for the German-speaking adult population, and that at least one in 10 cannabis users will continue to use cannabis heavily (almost daily or 200 + times in the past year).

People with higher relationship satisfaction use more humor, valuing, and receptive listening to regulate their partners' emotions.

The emotional experiences you have with a romantic partner shape how satisfied you are in your relationship. Engaging in attempts to make a romantic partner feel better is linked with better relationship outcomes. However, it is not yet clear which specific processes people use to regulate their partners' emotions, nor which processes are most strongly linked with relationship satisfaction. In the current study of 277 individuals (55% female), we tested the extent to which eight extrinsic emotion regulation processes (expressive suppression, downward social comparison, humor, distraction, direct action, reappraisal, receptive listening, and valuing) predict relationship satisfaction. Six of the eight processes showed significant positive correlations with relationship satisfaction, with the strongest associations for valuing (r = .43), humor (r = .33), and receptive listening (r = .27). Relative weights were significant only for valuing, humor, and receptive listening, suggesting that these are the most important predictors of relationship satisfaction. Results are discussed in terms of the distinction between intrinsic and extrinsic regulation processes and the potential importance of motives for regulation. Supplementary Information: The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s12144-023-04432-4.

Alcoholic Beverage Preference in Germany: An Age-Period-Cohort Analysis of Trends 1995-2018.

AIMS: Germany is experiencing a decline in alcohol consumption but not for every alcoholic beverage type. Given the differential health impacts of alcoholic beverage type, it is important to understand the drivers of these trends. We investigated: (a) temporal trends in beverage preference and (b) the effects of age, period and cohort on these trends. METHODS: Data came from nine waves (1995-2018; ntotal = 75,550) of the German Epidemiological Survey of Substance Abuse, a nationally representative household survey of individuals aged 18-59 years. The quantity of beer, wine, spirits and mixed drinks drank in the last 30 days was transformed into grammes of ethanol, and the beverage type preference was estimated as the proportion of total ethanol consumption. Fractional multinomial logit regression was applied to analyse the age, period and cohort effects on temporal trends of beverage preference by sex. RESULTS: The preference for spirits and mixed drinks decreased with increasing age, while the preference for wine increased with no age effect on beer. There was a general decrease in the preference for beer and an increase in the preference for wine among both sexes, with an additional increase in the preference for spirits in males. CONCLUSION: Trends in beverage preference were more related to individual ageing and changes in the whole population than to cohorts. With the continued reduction in alcohol consumption, the decreasing preference for beer and the growing preference for wine suggest a positive development. Trends of an increasing preference for spirits in males are of concern.

Affect-specific empathy: Experience sampling and multilevel structural equation modeling provide a within-person perspective.

There are intraindividual differences in empathic tendencies across situations. Empathy research, however, has traditionally focused on differences between people. This between-person approach does not necessarily describe the structure of empathy for individual people. Additionally, it is unclear whether the valence of affect perceived in the target person moderates the empathic process. Through a microlongitudinal experience sampling study (N = 117 adults, Nobservations = 6,307) we investigated within-person variation in empathy. Applying a variance component analysis, we found substantial individual differences in affect-specific empathy. Then, using multilevel structural equation modeling, we developed a within-person and between-person model of affect-specific empathy, identifying different factor correlation patterns at the within-person and between-person levels. For the within-person level, participants mostly empathized cognitively and affectively either for positive or negative affect, but rarely at the same time. For the between-person level, we found separate affect-specific dimensions for affective empathy, indicating that in general, individuals report affective empathy for one affect (e.g., positive) more than the other (e.g., negative). However, there was no affect-specific differentiation for cognitive empathy. Beyond the average within-person model for all participants combined, we found large differences between persons in the extent to which they simultaneously experienced positive and/or negative affective and/or cognitive empathy. Implications and future directions are discussed. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

The Process Model of Emotion Regulation Questionnaire: Assessing Individual Differences in Strategy Stage and Orientation.

The study of individual differences in emotion regulation has typically focused exclusively either on the stage of the emotion generation process at which regulation occurs or on the engagement versus disengagement orientation of the regulation efforts. We introduce a new measure that samples equally across each stage of the process model of emotion regulation and from both engagement and disengagement orientations. Through five studies (ntotal = 2,543), we present the development and convergent, discriminant, and predictive validity evidence for the Process Model of Emotion Regulation Questionnaire (PMERQ). We show the final 10-scale 45-item questionnaire has acceptable internal consistency, is invariant between genders and across the age range, and has sufficient convergent and discriminant validity. The PMERQ also predicts affective and relationship functioning with strategies occurring earlier in the process model generally showing the strongest effects. We propose the PMERQ is a valuable measure to assess individual differences in the use of emotion regulation strategies.

A Lower-Class Advantage in Face Memory.

People remember what they deem important. In line with research suggesting that lower-class (vs. higher class) individuals spontaneously appraise other people as more relevant, we show that social class is associated with the habitual use of face memory. We find that lower-class (vs. higher class) participants exhibit better incidental memory for faces (i.e., spontaneous memory for faces they had not been instructed to memorize; Studies 1 and 2). No social-class differences emerge for faces participants are instructed to learn (Study 2), suggesting that this pattern reflects class-based relevance appraisals rather than memory ability. Study 3 extends our findings to eyewitness identification. Lower-class (vs. higher-class) participants' eyewitness accuracy is less impacted by the explicit relevance of a target (clearly relevant thief vs. incidental bystander). Integrative data analysis shows a robust negative association between social class and spontaneous face memory. Preregistration (Studies 1 and 3) and cross-cultural replication (Study 2) further strengthen the results.

Taking the cat-and-mouse game to the next level: different perspectives on the introduction of the German New Psychoactive Substances Act.

BACKGROUND: To counteract the spread of new psychoactive substances (NPS) and to prevent the emergence of novel substances, specifically designed as a response to the legal control of individual substances, a new law was introduced in Germany in 2016: the New Psychoactive Substances Act (NpSG). The NpSG combines a generic approach with the waiver of criminal liability for the acquisition and possession of NPS for personal use, which is a novelty in German narcotics law. The present study aimed at exploring the impact of the introduction of the NpSG from three different perspectives-NPS users, staff of addiction care facilities, and members of law enforcement authorities-to better understand the dynamics surrounding such a change in legislation and to contribute to the body of international experience in dealing with NPS. METHODS: Semi-structured narrative interviews were conducted with a total of 193 representatives of the three different groups affected by the law. These interviews included questions on perceived changes associated with the introduction of the NpSG as well as questions on opinions regarding legal and criminal policy issues. The analysis was carried out using qualitative content analysis according to Mayring. RESULTS: Most interviewees welcomed the non-criminalisation approach of the NpSG but also noticed that, in practice, not much has changed for users. Nevertheless, the changes in legislation have had an impact on the market. For example, novel substances have emerged circumventing the new legislation. According to users, this has led some to reduce NPS use and others to adopt more hazardous consumption patterns. Overall, most respondents did not expect the introduction of the NpSG to bring any significant changes. CONCLUSIONS: Although the idea of non-criminalisation inherent to the NpSG is appreciated and the generic approach has been well implemented in the law, thus covering a wide range of substances, the introduction of the law-perhaps for that very reason-has also had unintended and negative consequences, taking the cat-and-mouse game to the next level. To end the game, or at least to defuse the game situation, a combination of different strategies will be necessary, with legislation always playing a key role.

Changes in the Use of Tobacco, Alternative Tobacco Products, and Tobacco Alternatives in Germany.

BACKGROUND: Due to the increasing use of alternative tobacco products (waterpipes, heat-not-burn) and tobacco alternatives (e-cigarettes), we studied recent changes in the prevalence of conventional tobacco use and alternative products. METHODS: Data come from ten waves of the Epidemiological Survey of Substance Abuse (ESA) from 1995 to 2021, with representative samples collected via paperpencil questionnaires, telephone interviews, or online. We compared the prevalence of conventional tobacco use and alternative products by gender and age (18-24, 25-39, 40-59 years). RESULTS: In all age groups, the use of conventional tobacco products decreased. The prevalence of the exclusive use of one of the three alternative products differed statistically significantly between age groups and in 2021 was higher for ages 18-24 (females: 11.1%, males: 12.4%) compared to ages 25-39 (females: 2.9%; males: 4.9%) and ages 40-59 (females: 1.4%; males: 2.0%). The use of alternative products was mainly due to the exclusive use of waterpipes among individuals aged 18 to 24 and 25 to 39 and the exclusive use of e-cigarettes among individuals aged 40 to 59. CONCLUSION: The higher prevalence of alternative product use among young adults implies a turning point that needs to be considered in prevention. Because of the addictive potential of these products, young adults can be expected to maintain their use into middle and older adulthood. There is a need to monitor the use of alternative products, identify the risks associated with them, and develop effective prevention and cessation interventions for adults.

Assessing individual differences in face recognition: No impact of task design features on the structure of this ability.

The ability to remember faces is essential for everyday life, with deficits indicative of some neurological conditions. Face recognition ability tasks vary considerably in their design (i.e., use of the same or a different picture for learning and recall and inclusion or exclusion of nonface characteristics), which is known to impact performance levels. However, it is unknown whether these design features cause additional cognitive abilities to be assessed. We preregistered three hypotheses, namely performance on face recognition tasks can best be explained by: (Hypothesis 1) a single general face recognition ability; (Hypothesis 2) a general face recognition ability and an unrelated ability representing one's capacity to ignore external information when recognizing faces; and (Hypothesis 3) a general face recognition ability, a separable unrelated ability to ignore external information, and a third unrelated ability representing one's capacity to recognize faces specifically when different photographs of the same individual are used. During a controlled laboratory session, N = 176 adults (Mage = 25.52 years) completed 16 face recognition tasks that comprised different versions of the aforementioned task designs. With confirmatory factor analysis, we found support for Hypothesis 1, indicating that the rank order of participants regarding their face recognition ability does not meaningfully differ due to the different task designs, indicating additional abilities are not needed. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

Subtypes in Patients Taking Prescribed Opioid Analgesics and Their Characteristics: A Latent Class Analysis.

Background: Owing to their pharmacological properties the use of opioid analgesics carries a risk of abuse and dependence, which are associated with a wide range of personal, social, and medical problems. Data-based approaches for identifying distinct patient subtypes at risk for prescription opioid use disorder in Germany are lacking. Objective: This study aimed to identify distinct subgroups of patients using prescribed opioid analgesics at risk for prescription opioid use disorder. Methods: Latent class analysis was applied to pooled data from the 2015 and 2021 Epidemiological Survey of Substance Abuse. Participants were aged 18-64 years and self-reported the use of prescribed opioid analgesics in the last year (n = 503). Seven class-defining variables based on behavioral, mental, and physical health characteristics commonly associated with problematic opioid use were used to identify participant subtypes. Statistical tests were performed to examine differences between the participant subtypes on sociodemographic variables and prescription opioid use disorder. Results: Three classes were extracted, which were labeled as poor mental health group (43.0%, n = 203), polysubstance group (10.4%, n = 50), and relatively healthy group (46.6%, n = 250). Individuals within the poor mental health group (23.2%, n = 43) and the polysubstance group (31.1%, n = 13) showed a higher prevalence of prescription opioid use disorder compared to those of the relatively healthy group. Conclusion: The results add further evidence to the knowledge that patients using prescribed opioid analgesics are not a homogeneous group of individuals whose needs lie in pain management alone. Rather, it becomes clear that these patients differ in their individual risk of a prescription opioid use disorder, and therefore identification of specific risks plays an important role in early prevention.

The Use of Psychoactive Substances in Germany.

BACKGROUND: Monitoring the use of psychoactive substances and substance-related problems in the population allows for the assessment of prevalence and associated health and social consequences. METHODS: The data are derived from the Epidemiological Survey of Substance Abuse (ESA) 2021 (n = 9046, 18-64 years). We estimated prevalence rates of the use of tobacco, alcohol, illegal drugs, and psychoactive medications, as well as the prevalence rates of their problematic use (indicating dependence) using screening instruments, and extrapolated the results to the resident population (N = 51 139 451). RESULTS: Alcohol was the most frequently used substance, with a 30-day prevalence of 70.5% (36.1 million people), followed by non-opioid analgesic drugs (47.4%; 24.2 million) and conventional tobacco products (22.7%; 11.6 million). E-cigarettes were used by 4.3% (2.2 million) and heat-not-burn products by 1.3% (665 000). Among illegal drugs (12-month prevalence), cannabis was the most frequently used (8.8%; 4.5 million), followed by cocaine/crack (1.6%; 818 000) and amphetamine (1.4%; 716 000). Rates of problematic use among the study participants were 17.6% for alcohol (9.0 million), 7.8% for tobacco (4.0 million), 5.7% for psychoactive medications (2.9 million), and 2.5% for cannabis (1.3 million). CONCLUSION: The consumption of psychoactive substances continues to be widespread in Germany. In view of the imminent legal changes, the high prevalence of cannabis use and its problematic use need to be taken into consideration.

Abuse of Non-opioid Analgesics in Germany: Prevalence and Associations Among Self-Medicated Users.

Background: Abuse of non-opioid analgesics (NOA) is associated with serious health consequences. However, due to inconsistent definitions of NOA abuse, prevalence estimates for the German population are unclear. Objectives: This study aimed to estimate the 12-month prevalence of NOA abuse among self-medicated users of these drugs in the general German population and to identify risk factors. Methods: Data are from the 2015 Epidemiological Survey of Substance Abuse, a nationally representative sample with 9,204 individuals aged 18-64 years. Classification of NOA abuse was based on self-reported information according to the definition of the ICD-10-GM diagnosis F55.2 abuse of non-dependence producing substances. Multiple logistic regression was performed to examine associations between NOA abuse and sociodemographic, behavioral, and health-related variables. Results: The weighted 12-month prevalence of NOA abuse was 14.6% (95%-CI [13.2- 16.0]) among self-medicated users of these drugs. Extrapolation of the proportion of individuals abusing NOA to the German population aged 18 to 64 is 3,243,396 individuals or 6.4% (95%-CI [5.7- 7.1]). Inexplicable physical pain, being underweight, depression, hazardous alcohol use, daily smoking, illegal drug use, and frequent use of NOA (one or more times per week and daily use) were associated with an increased probability of NOA abuse. The use of cannabis was associated with a lower probability of NOA abuse. Conclusion: Abuse of NOA is highly prevalent in the German population. Against the background of increasing self-medication of NOA, healthcare providers need to be aware of potential risk factors of abuse to better identify and prevent this problem.

Sty in the Mind's Eye: A Meta-Analytic Investigation of the Nomological Network and Internal Consistency of the "Reading the Mind in the Eyes" Test.

The Reading the Mind in the Eyes Test (RMET) is the most popular adult measure of individual differences in theory of mind. We present a meta-analytic investigation of the test's psychometric properties (k = 119 effect sizes, 61 studies, ntotal = 8,611 persons). Using random effects models, we found the internal consistency of the test was acceptable (α = .73). However, the RMET was more strongly related with emotion perception (r = .33, ρ = .48) relative to alternative theory of mind measures (r = .29, ρ = .39), and weakly to moderately related with vocabulary (r = .25, ρ = .32), cognitive empathy (r = .14, ρ = .20), and affective empathy (r = .13, ρ = .19). Overall, we conclude that the RMET operates rather as emotion perception measure than as theory of mind measure, challenging the interpretation of RMET results.

Detection of Psychopathic Traits in Emotional Faces.

When meeting someone at zero acquaintance, we make assumptions about each other that encompass emotional states, personality traits, and even cognitive abilities. Evidence suggests individuals can accurately detect psychopathic personality traits in strangers based on short video clips or photographs of faces. We present an in-depth examination of this ability. In two studies, we investigated whether high psychopathy traits are perceivable and whether other traits affect ratings of psychopathic traits in the sense of a halo effect. On the perceiver's end, we additionally examined how cognitive abilities and personality traits of the responders affect these ratings. In two studies (n1 = 170 community adults from the USA, n2 = 126 students from Australia), participants rated several targets on several characteristics of psychopathy, as well as on attractiveness, masculinity, sympathy, trustworthiness, neuroticism, intelligence, and extraversion. Results show that responders were generally able to detect psychopathy. Responders generally came to a consensus in their ratings, and using profile similarity metrics, we found a weak relation between ratings of psychopathy and the targets' psychopathy level as determined by the Psychopathy Checklist: Short Version. Trait ratings, though, were influenced by the ratings of other traits like attractiveness. Finally, we found accuracy in the perception of psychopathy was positively related to fluid intelligence but unrelated to emotion perception ability.