The deubiquitinase inhibitor b-AP15 induces strong proteotoxic stress and mitochondrial damage.

Human cancers are characterized by intrinsic or acquired resistance to apoptosis and evasion of apoptosis has been proposed to contribute to treatment resistance. Bis-benzylidine piperidone compounds, containing α,ß-unsaturated carbonyl functionalities, have been extensively documented as being effective in killing apoptosis-resistant cells and to display promising antineoplastic activities in a number of tumor models. We here explored the phenotypic response of colon cancer cells to b-AP15, a bis-benzylidine piperidone previously shown to inhibit the proteasome deubiquitinases (DUBs) USP14 and UCHL5. Whereas similar overall mRNA and protein expression profiles were induced by b-AP15 and the clinically available proteasome inhibitor bortezomib, b-AP15 induced stronger increases of chaperone expression. b-AP15 also induced a stronger accumulation of polyubiquitinated proteins in exposed cells. These proteins were found to partially colocalize with organelle structures, including mitochondria. Mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation decreased in cells exposed to b-AP15, a phenomenon enhanced under conditions of severe proteotoxic stress caused by inhibition of the VCP/p97 ATPase and inhibition of protein translocation over the ER. We propose that mitochondrial damage caused by the association of misfolded proteins with mitochondrial membranes may contribute to the atypical cell death mode induced by b-AP15 and related compounds. The robust mode of cell death induction by this class of drugs holds promise for treatment of tumor cells characterized by apoptosis resistance.

Irreversible inhibition of cytosolic thioredoxin reductase 1 as a mechanistic basis for anticancer therapy.

Cancer cells adapt to their inherently increased oxidative stress through activation of the glutathione (GSH) and thioredoxin (TXN) systems. Inhibition of both of these systems effectively kills cancer cells, but such broad inhibition of antioxidant activity also kills normal cells, which is highly unwanted in a clinical setting. We therefore evaluated targeting of the TXN pathway alone and, more specifically, selective inhibition of the cytosolic selenocysteine-containing enzyme TXN reductase 1 (TXNRD1). TXNRD1 inhibitors were discovered in a large screening effort and displayed increased specificity compared to pan-TXNRD inhibitors, such as auranofin, that also inhibit the mitochondrial enzyme TXNRD2 and additional targets. For our lead compounds, TXNRD1 inhibition correlated with cancer cell cytotoxicity, and inhibitor-triggered conversion of TXNRD1 from an antioxidant to a pro-oxidant enzyme correlated with corresponding increases in cellular production of H2O2 In mice, the most specific TXNRD1 inhibitor, here described as TXNRD1 inhibitor 1 (TRi-1), impaired growth and viability of human tumor xenografts and syngeneic mouse tumors while having little mitochondrial toxicity and being better tolerated than auranofin. These results display the therapeutic anticancer potential of irreversibly targeting cytosolic TXNRD1 using small molecules and present potent and selective TXNRD1 inhibitors. Given the pronounced up-regulation of TXNRD1 in several metastatic malignancies, it seems worthwhile to further explore the potential benefit of specific irreversible TXNRD1 inhibitors for anticancer therapy.

MYC is downregulated by a mitochondrial checkpoint mechanism.

The MYC proto-oncogene serves as a rheostat coupling mitogenic signaling with the activation of genes regulating growth, metabolism and mitochondrial biogenesis. Here we describe a novel link between mitochondria and MYC levels. Perturbation of mitochondrial function using a number of conventional and novel inhibitors resulted in the decreased expression of MYC mRNA. This decrease in MYC mRNA occurred concomitantly with an increase in the levels of tumor-suppressive miRNAs such as members of the let-7 family and miR-34a-5p. Knockdown of let-7 family or miR-34a-5p could partially restore MYC levels following mitochondria damage. We also identified let-7-dependent downregulation of the MYC mRNA chaperone, CRD-BP (coding region determinant-binding protein) as an additional control following mitochondria damage. Our data demonstrates the existence of a homeostasis mechanism whereby mitochondrial function controls MYC expression.

Acute lymphoblastic leukemia cells are sensitive to disturbances in protein homeostasis induced by proteasome deubiquitinase inhibition.

The non-genotoxic nature of proteasome inhibition makes it an attractive therapeutic option for the treatment of pediatric malignancies. We recently described the small molecule VLX1570 as an inhibitor of proteasome deubiquitinase (DUB) activity that induces proteotoxic stress and apoptosis in cancer cells. Here we show that acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) cells are highly sensitive to treatment with VLX1570, resulting in the accumulation of polyubiquitinated proteasome substrates and loss of cell viability. VLX1570 treatment increased the levels of a number of proteins, including the chaperone HSP70B', the oxidative stress marker heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) and the cell cycle regulator p21Cip1. Unexpectedly, polybiquitin accumulation was found to be uncoupled from ER stress in ALL cells. Thus, increased phosphorylation of eIF2α occurred only at supra-pharmacological VLX1570 concentrations and did not correlate with polybiquitin accumulation. Total cellular protein synthesis was found to decrease in the absence of eIF2α phosphorylation. Furthermore, ISRIB (Integrated Stress Response inhibitor) did not overcome the inhibition of protein synthesis. We finally show that VLX1570 can be combined with L-asparaginase for additive or synergistic antiproliferative effects on ALL cells. We conclude that ALL cells are highly sensitive to the proteasome DUB inhibitor VLX1570 suggesting a novel therapeutic option for this disease.

Iron chelators target both proliferating and quiescent cancer cells.

Poorly vascularized areas of solid tumors contain quiescent cell populations that are resistant to cell cycle-active cancer drugs. The compound VLX600 was recently identified to target quiescent tumor cells and to inhibit mitochondrial respiration. We here performed gene expression analysis in order to characterize the cellular response to VLX600. The compound-specific signature of VLX600 revealed a striking similarity to signatures generated by compounds known to chelate iron. Validation experiments including addition of ferrous and ferric iron in excess, EXAFS measurements, and structure activity relationship analyses showed that VLX600 chelates iron and supported the hypothesis that the biological effects of this compound is due to iron chelation. Compounds that chelate iron possess anti-cancer activity, an effect largely attributed to inhibition of ribonucleotide reductase in proliferating cells. Here we show that iron chelators decrease mitochondrial energy production, an effect poorly tolerated by metabolically stressed tumor cells. These pleiotropic features make iron chelators an attractive option for the treatment of solid tumors containing heterogeneous populations of proliferating and quiescent cells.

The proteasome deubiquitinase inhibitor VLX1570 shows selectivity for ubiquitin-specific protease-14 and induces apoptosis of multiple myeloma cells.

Inhibition of deubiquitinase (DUB) activity is a promising strategy for cancer therapy. VLX1570 is an inhibitor of proteasome DUB activity currently in clinical trials for relapsed multiple myeloma. Here we show that VLX1570 binds to and inhibits the activity of ubiquitin-specific protease-14 (USP14) in vitro, with comparatively weaker inhibitory activity towards UCHL5 (ubiquitin-C-terminal hydrolase-5). Exposure of multiple myeloma cells to VLX1570 resulted in thermostabilization of USP14 at therapeutically relevant concentrations. Transient knockdown of USP14 or UCHL5 expression by electroporation of siRNA reduced the viability of multiple myeloma cells. Treatment of multiple myeloma cells with VLX1570 induced the accumulation of proteasome-bound high molecular weight polyubiquitin conjugates and an apoptotic response. Sensitivity to VLX1570 was moderately affected by altered drug uptake, but was unaffected by overexpression of BCL2-family proteins or inhibitors of caspase activity. Finally, treatment with VLX1570 was found to lead to extended survival in xenograft models of multiple myeloma. Our findings demonstrate promising antiproliferative activity of VLX1570 in multiple myeloma, primarily associated with inhibition of USP14 activity.

Targeting Mitochondrial Function to Treat Quiescent Tumor Cells in Solid Tumors.

The disorganized nature of tumor vasculature results in the generation of microenvironments characterized by nutrient starvation, hypoxia and accumulation of acidic metabolites. Tumor cell populations in such areas are often slowly proliferating and thus refractory to chemotherapeutical drugs that are dependent on an active cell cycle. There is an urgent need for alternative therapeutic interventions that circumvent growth dependency. The screening of drug libraries using multicellular tumor spheroids (MCTS) or glucose-starved tumor cells has led to the identification of several compounds with promising therapeutic potential and that display activity on quiescent tumor cells. Interestingly, a common theme of these drug screens is the recurrent identification of agents that affect mitochondrial function. Such data suggest that, contrary to the classical Warburg view, tumor cells in nutritionally-compromised microenvironments are dependent on mitochondrial function for energy metabolism and survival. These findings suggest that mitochondria may represent an "Achilles heel" for the survival of slowly-proliferating tumor cells and suggest strategies for the development of therapy to target these cell populations.

Three-Dimensional Cell Culture-Based Screening Identifies the Anthelmintic Drug Nitazoxanide as a Candidate for Treatment of Colorectal Cancer.

Because dormant cancer cells in hypoxic and nutrient-deprived regions of solid tumors provide a major obstacle to treatment, compounds targeting those cells might have clinical benefits. Here, we describe a high-throughput drug screening approach, using glucose-deprived multicellular tumor spheroids (MCTS) with inner hypoxia, to identify compounds that specifically target this cell population. We used a concept of drug repositioning-using known molecules for new indications. This is a promising strategy to identify molecules for rapid clinical advancement. By screening 1,600 compounds with documented clinical history, we aimed to identify candidates with unforeseen potential for repositioning as anticancer drugs. Our screen identified five molecules with pronounced MCTS-selective activity: nitazoxanide, niclosamide, closantel, pyrvinium pamoate, and salinomycin. Herein, we show that all five compounds inhibit mitochondrial respiration. This suggests that cancer cells in low glucose concentrations depend on oxidative phosphorylation rather than solely glycolysis. Importantly, continuous exposure to the compounds was required to achieve effective treatment. Nitazoxanide, an FDA-approved antiprotozoal drug with excellent pharmacokinetic and safety profile, is the only molecule among the screening hits that reaches high plasma concentrations persisting for up to a few hours after single oral dose. Nitazoxanide activated the AMPK pathway and downregulated c-Myc, mTOR, and Wnt signaling at clinically achievable concentrations. Nitazoxanide combined with the cytotoxic drug irinotecan showed anticancer activity in vivo. We here report that the FDA-approved anthelmintic drug nitazoxanide could be a potential candidate for advancement into cancer clinical trials.

Induction of mitochondrial dysfunction as a strategy for targeting tumour cells in metabolically compromised microenvironments.

Abnormal vascularization of solid tumours results in the development of microenvironments deprived of oxygen and nutrients that harbour slowly growing and metabolically stressed cells. Such cells display enhanced resistance to standard chemotherapeutic agents and repopulate tumours after therapy. Here we identify the small molecule VLX600 as a drug that is preferentially active against quiescent cells in colon cancer 3-D microtissues. The anticancer activity is associated with reduced mitochondrial respiration, leading to bioenergetic catastrophe and tumour cell death. VLX600 shows enhanced cytotoxic activity under conditions of nutrient starvation. Importantly, VLX600 displays tumour growth inhibition in vivo. Our findings suggest that tumour cells in metabolically compromised microenvironments have a limited ability to respond to decreased mitochondrial function, and suggest a strategy for targeting the quiescent populations of tumour cells for improved cancer treatment.

Metabolism of epidermal growth factor receptor targeting probe [11C]PD153035: impact on biodistribution and tumor uptake in rats.

UNLABELLED: Several tracers have been evaluated as probes for noninvasive epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) quantification with PET. One of the most promising candidates is the (11)C-labeled analog of the EGFR tyrosine kinase inhibitor PD153035. However, previous in vitro studies indicated extensive metabolism of the tracer, which could be disadvantageous for the assessment of receptor density in vivo. The aim of this study was to investigate the in vivo metabolism of [(11)C]PD153035 to determine whether alterations in metabolite formation are accompanied by changes in biodistribution and tumor uptake. METHODS: EGFR-overexpressing human epidermoid carcinoma xenografts in rats were used in all examinations of tumor uptake. Cytochrome P450 enzymes of subfamilies CYP2D and CYP3A were inhibited before intravenous injection of [(11)C]PD153035 into healthy and tumor-bearing male rats. Samples were taken from arterial blood and urine, and the occurrence of radioactive metabolites was assessed with radio-high-performance liquid chromatography. Dynamic PET examinations of healthy and tumor-bearing animals were performed. In 1 rat, the effect of local intraarterial administration was examined. RESULTS: [(11)C]PD153035 labeled at position 6 was metabolized extensively in vivo in male rats, resulting in very low levels of the intact tracer in plasma only minutes after injection. The major identified radiolabeled metabolites found were the N-oxide and metabolites arising from O demethylation at position 7. They were reduced by inhibition of CYP2D and CYP3A enzymes. PET revealed enzyme activity-dependent changes in the radioactivity distribution in the liver and tumors. Local administration of [(11)C]PD153035 greatly increased radioactivity levels in the adjacent tumor compared with levels typically found after intravenous administration. The highest tumor-to-muscle ratio at 60 min after intravenous injection was found in the untreated animals, whereas the overall highest ratio was found in the tumor near the intraarterial administration site. CONCLUSION: We suggest that the metabolism of [(11)C]PD153035 should be taken into consideration when this tracer is used to quantify EGFR expression, as our results indicated that the distribution of radioactivity to EGFR-overexpressing tumors was affected by the rate of metabolism and the route of administration.

Site-specifically 11C-labeled Sel-tagged annexin A5 and a size-matched control for dynamic in vivo PET imaging of protein distribution in tissues prior to and after induced cell death.

BACKGROUND: Radiolabeled annexin A5 (AnxA5) is widely used for detecting phosphatidylserine exposed on cell surfaces during apoptosis. We describe here a new method for labeling AnxA5 and a size-matched control protein with short-lived carbon-11, for probing the specificity of in vivo cell death monitoring using positron emission tomography (PET) imaging. METHODS: AnxA5 and the control protein were recombinantly expressed with a C-terminal "Sel-tag", the tetrapeptide -Gly-Cys-Sec-Gly-COOH. The proteins were then labeled either fluorescently for in vitro corroborations of binding behaviors or with 11C for dynamic in vivo PET studies. RESULTS: AnxA5 demonstrated retained calcium-dependent binding to apoptotic cells after the C-terminus modification. The control protein showed no functional binding. The 11C-ligands demonstrated similar in vivo pharmacokinetic behavior in healthy mice except for higher uptake in kidney and higher intact elimination to urine of AnxA5. After inducing hepatic apoptosis, however, the uptake of labeled AnxA5 in the targeted tissue increased compared to baseline levels while that of the control protein tended to decrease. CONCLUSIONS: These data suggest that the combined use of these two tracers can facilitate differentiating specific AnxA5 binding and its changes caused by induced cell death from uptake due to non-specific permeability and retention effects at baseline or after therapy. GENERAL SIGNIFICANCE: The Sel-tag enables rapid and mild reactions with electrophilic agents giving site-specifically labeled proteins for multi-probe analyses. The combined use of 11C-labeled AnxA5 and a size-matched control protein with dynamic PET can be useful for evaluating drug effects on target as well as off-target tissues.

Combining [11C]-AnxA5 PET imaging with serum biomarkers for improved detection in live mice of modest cell death in human solid tumor xenografts.

BACKGROUND: In vivo imaging using Annexin A5-based radioligands is a powerful technique for visualizing massive cell death, but has been less successful in monitoring the modest cell death typically seen in solid tumors after chemotherapy. Here we combined dynamic positron emission tomography (PET) imaging using Annexin A5 with a serum-based apoptosis marker, for improved sensitivity and specificity in assessment of chemotherapy-induced cell death in a solid tumor model. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: Modest cell death was induced by doxorubicin in a mouse xenograft model with human FaDu head and neck cancer cells. PET imaging was based on (11)C-labeled Sel-tagged Annexin A5 ([(11)C]-AnxA5-ST) and a size-matched control. 2-deoxy-2-[(18)F]fluoro-D-glucose ([(18)F]-FDG) was utilized as a tracer of tissue metabolism. Serum biomarkers for cell death were ccK18 and K18 (M30 Apoptosense® and M65). Apoptosis in tissue sections was verified ex vivo for validation. Both PET imaging using [(11)C]-AnxA5-ST and serum ccK18/K18 levels revealed treatment-induced cell death, with ccK18 displaying the highest detection sensitivity. [(18)F]-FDG uptake was not affected by this treatment in this tumor model. [(11)C]-AnxA5-ST gave robust imaging readouts at one hour and its short half-life made it possible to perform paired scans in the same animal in one imaging session. CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE: The combined use of dynamic PET with [(11)C]-AnxA5-ST, showing specific increases in tumor binding potential upon therapy, with ccK18/K18 serum measurements, as highly sensitive markers for cell death, enabled effective assessment of modest therapy-induced cell death in this mouse xenograft model of solid human tumors.

HER2-positive tumors imaged within 1 hour using a site-specifically 11C-labeled Sel-tagged affibody molecule.

UNLABELLED: A rapid, reliable method for distinguishing tumors or metastases that overexpress human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 (HER2) from those that do not is highly desired for individualizing therapy and predicting prognoses. In vivo imaging methods are available but not yet in clinical practice; new methodologies improving speed, sensitivity, and specificity are required. METHODS: A HER2-binding Affibody molecule, Z(HER2:342), was recombinantly fused with a C-terminal selenocysteine-containing tetrapeptide Sel-tag, allowing site-specific labeling with either (11)C or (68)Ga, followed by biodistribution studies with small-animal PET. Dosimetry data for the 2 radiotracers were compared. Imaging of HER2-expressing human tumor xenografts was performed using the (11)C-labeled Affibody molecule. RESULTS: Both the (11)C- and (68)Ga-labeled tracers initially cleared rapidly from the blood, followed by a slower decrease to 4-5 percentage injected dose per gram of tissue at 1 h. Final retention in the kidneys was much lower (>5-fold) for the (11)C-labeled protein, and its overall absorbed dose was considerably lower. (11)C-Z(HER2:342) showed excellent tumor-targeting capability, with almost 10 percentage injected dose per gram of tissue in HER2-expressing tumors within 1 h. Specificity was demonstrated by preblocking binding sites with excess ligand, yielding significantly reduced radiotracer uptake (P = 0.002), comparable to uptake in tumors with low HER2 expression. CONCLUSION: To our knowledge, the Sel-tagging technique is the first that enables site-specific (11)C-radiolabeling of proteins. Here we present the finding that, in a favorable combination between radionuclide half-life and in vivo pharmacokinetics of the Affibody molecules, (11)C-labeled Sel-tagged Z(HER2:342) can successfully be used for rapid and repeated PET studies of HER2 expression in tumors.

The phosphoinositide 3-kinase/mammalian target of rapamycin inhibitor NVP-BEZ235 is effective in inhibiting regrowth of tumour cells after cytotoxic therapy.

PURPOSE: Regrowth of tumour cells between cycles of chemotherapy is a significant clinical problem. Treatment strategies where antiproliferative agents are used to inhibit tumour regrowth between chemotherapy cycles are attractive, but such strategies are difficult to test using conventional monolayer culture systems. METHODS: We used the in vitro tumour spheroid model to study regrowth of 3-D colon carcinoma tissue after cytotoxic therapy. Colon carcinoma cells with wild-type or mutant phosphatidyl inositol 3-kinase catalytic subunit (PI3KCA) or KRAS alleles were allowed to form multicellular spheroids and the effects of different pharmacological compounds were studied after sectioning and staining for relevant markers of cell proliferation and apoptosis. RESULTS: Studies using colon cancer cells with gene disruptions suggested that the phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K)-mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) pathway was essential for proliferation in 3-D culture. The dual PI3K-mTOR inhibitor NVP-BEZ235, currently in clinical trials, was found to inhibit phosphorylation of the mTOR target 4EBP1 in 3-D cultured cells. The ability of NVP-BEZ235 to inhibit tumour cell proliferation and to induce apoptosis was markedly more pronounced in 3-D cultures compared to monolayer cultures. It was subsequently found that NVP-BEZ235 was effective in inhibiting regrowth of 3-D cultured cells after treatment with two cytotoxic inhibitors of the ubiquitin-proteasome system (UPS), methyl-13-hydroxy-15-oxokaurenoate (MHOK) and bortezomib (Velcade®). CONCLUSIONS: The dual PI3K-mTOR inhibitor NVP-BEZ235 was found to reduce cell proliferation and to induce apoptosis in 3-D cultured colon carcinoma cells, NVP-BEZ235 is a promising candidate for use in sequential treatment modalities together with cytotoxic drugs to reduce the cell mass of solid tumours.

Inhibition of proteasome deubiquitinating activity as a new cancer therapy.

Ubiquitin-tagged substrates are degraded by the 26S proteasome, which is a multisubunit complex comprising a proteolytic 20S core particle capped by 19S regulatory particles. The approval of bortezomib for the treatment of multiple myeloma validated the 20S core particle as an anticancer drug target. Here we describe the small molecule b-AP15 as a previously unidentified class of proteasome inhibitor that abrogates the deubiquitinating activity of the 19S regulatory particle. b-AP15 inhibited the activity of two 19S regulatory-particle-associated deubiquitinases, ubiquitin C-terminal hydrolase 5 (UCHL5) and ubiquitin-specific peptidase 14 (USP14), resulting in accumulation of polyubiquitin. b-AP15 induced tumor cell apoptosis that was insensitive to TP53 status and overexpression of the apoptosis inhibitor BCL2. We show that treatment with b-AP15 inhibited tumor progression in four different in vivo solid tumor models and inhibited organ infiltration in an acute myeloid leukemia model. Our results show that the deubiquitinating activity of the 19S regulatory particle is a new anticancer drug target.

Identification of agents that induce apoptosis of multicellular tumour spheroids: enrichment for mitotic inhibitors with hydrophobic properties.

Cell-based anticancer drug screening generally utilizes rapidly proliferating tumour cells grown as monolayer cultures. Hit compounds from such screens are not necessarily effective on hypoxic and slowly proliferating cells in 3-D tumour tissue. The aim of this study was to examine the potential usefulness of 3-D cultured tumour cells for anticancer drug screening. We used colon carcinoma multicellular spheroids containing hypoxic and quiescent cells in core areas for this purpose. Three libraries (∼11 000 compounds) were screened using antiproliferative activity and/or apoptosis as end-points. Screening of monolayer and spheroid cultures was found to identify different sets of hit compounds. Spheroid screening enriched for hydrophobic compounds: median XLogP values of 4.3 and 4.4 were observed for the hits in two independent screening campaigns. Mechanistic analysis revealed that the majority of spheroid screening hits were microtubuli inhibitors. One of these inhibitors was examined in detail and found to be effective against non-dividing cells in the hypoxic centres of spheroids. Spheroid screening represents a conceptually new strategy for anticancer drug discovery. Our findings have implications for drug library design and hit selection in projects aimed to develop drugs for the treatment of solid tumours.

Screening of natural products for therapeutic activity against solid tumors.

Most of the currently used cancer therapeutics are natural products. These agents were generally discovered based on their toxicity to tumour cells using various bioassays. Although the exact mechanisms of action of the most commonly used cancer therapeutics such as anthracyclins, podophyllotoxins and camptothecin are incompletely understood, it is becoming increasingly clear that these agents often show complex modes of action at the cellular level, interacting with numerous targets. Such complex modes of action may be the very reason for clinical efficacy. For discovering new cytotoxic anticancer drugs sophisticated screening methods were used. The principles of such screening projects conducted, using collections of purified natural products or extracts from plants have been described. By performing simple but robust prescreening tests such as the brine shrimp assay, bioactive extracts can be identified. Extracts (65) prepared from a collection of Egyptian plants were identified that showed cytotoxity on HepG2 cells. Interestingly, 22 (33%) of these raw extracts, induced > 2-fold induction of caspase-cleavage activity in a colon carcinoma cell line, consistent with induction of apoptosis. Only a fraction of the diversity of the biosphere has been tested for biological activity and novel cancer therapeutics remains to be discovered.

Chemical biology suggests a role for calcium signaling in mediating sustained JNK activation during apoptosis.

Calcium (Ca(2+)) is used as a signaling molecule to regulate many cellular processes. Calcium signaling generally involves transient elevations of the concentration of free Ca(2+) in the cytosol. More pronounced and sustained elevations of intracellular Ca(2+) concentrations are observed during apoptosis (programmed cell death). These Ca(2+) elevations have been shown to lead to the activation of proteases (calpains) and to changes in protein phosphorylation. Recent evidence, using chemical biology, has raised the possibility that calcium signaling is involved in sustained JNK activation during late phases of apoptosis. For at least some stimuli, calcium release leads to activation of calmodulin kinase II (CaMKII), apoptosis signaling kinase 1 (ASK1) and JNK. Calcium signaling may help to orchestrate the apoptotic response during the execution phase.

Utilization of cytokeratin-based biomarkers for pharmacodynamic studies.

Cytokeratin (CK)18 is a useful serum biomarker for the determination of cell death of epithelial-derived tumors (carcinomas). ELISAs are available for caspase-cleaved CK18 (M30) released from apoptotic cells, or total CK18 (M65) released by cells undergoing cell death by any cause. These assays have been demonstrated to have prognostic or predictive utility in various types of carcinomas. Encouraging data have been reported by different investigators with regard to the potential use of CK18 as a serum efficacy biomarker for monitoring therapy efficiency in carcinoma patients. The ratio of caspase-cleaved to total CK18 can be determined conveniently in serum or plasma using commercially available ELISA kits (M30-Apoptosense and M65 ELISA, Peviva AB, Bromma, Sweden). M30:M65 ratios potentially provide information as to whether tumor cells undergo apoptosis or necrosis. However, as discussed in this review, M30:M65 ratios should be interpreted with caution and, preferably, only be applied to samples that contain significant levels of CK18. We conclude that M30 and M65 biomarkers provide both quantitative and qualitative information on carcinoma cell death.