Policy analysis for delivery of contagious bovine pleuropneumonia control strategies in sub-Saharan Africa.

This paper presents a policy analysis for the implementation of contagious bovine pleuropneumonia (CBPP) control strategies in pastoral regions of sub-Saharan Africa, where the disease is endemic. A framework for policy analysis was adapted for this review. The framework has eight principal steps: defining the context of the policy, identifying the problem to be addressed by the policy, searching for evidence of the problem, identifying policy options, projecting policy outcomes, evaluating the potential policy options, weighing their outcomes and making the policy decision. The data and information used to search for evidence of the problem, options for solving the problem, and the projected outcomes of those options were obtained from both published and grey sources of literature. The policy problem for CBPP control in sub-Saharan Africa was identified as a failure to deliver control services to farmers whose cattle are at high risk of exposure to infection. The authors suggest the adoption of signed contractual agreements between the public and private sectors to support the vaccination of susceptible herds raised in endemic regions. Implementation of this policy will increase vaccination coverage of susceptible cattle herds since current vaccination coverage is low.

Les auteurs présentent une analyse des politiques afin de décider des stratégies de lutte à mener contre la péripneumonie contagieuse bovine (PPCB) dans les régions d'élevage pastoral d'Afrique subsaharienne, où la maladie sévit à l'état endémique. Un cadre d'analyse des politiques a été configuré pour les besoins de cette étude. Ce cadre comporte huit étapes principales : définition du contexte des politiques à mener ; identification du problème ; recherche d'éléments factuels relatifs au problème ; identification des mesures envisageables ; définition des résultats attendus ; évaluation des options potentielles ; comparaison des résultats ; prise de décision. Les données et les informations réunies lors de la recherche d'éléments factuels, les solutions proposées pour résoudre le problème et les résultats attendus de chaque option provenaient de sources publiées ainsi que de la littérature grise. Il ressort de cette analyse que le principal problème en matière de lutte contre la PPCB en Afrique subsaharienne est l'absence de prestations de services appropriées destinées aux éleveurs dont les bovins sont particulièrement exposés au risque d'infection. Les auteurs proposent de recourir à des accords contractuels engageant le secteur tant public que privé en soutien de la vaccination des troupeaux sensibles dans les régions endémiques. La mise en oeuvre de cette politique permettrait d'accroître la couverture vaccinale du cheptel bovin sensible, qui est actuellement d'un niveau médiocre.

Los autores presentan un análisis de las políticas de aplicación de estrategias de lucha contra la perineumonía contagiosa bovina en regiones de pastoreo del África subsahariana, donde la enfermedad es endémica. Para llevar a cabo el estudio se adaptó un modelo de análisis de políticas que consta de ocho pasos principales: definir el contexto de la política; acotar el problema al que la política debe dar respuesta; buscar datos empíricos que evidencien el problema; determinar diferentes opciones políticas; proyectar los resultados de cada política; evaluar las posibles opciones políticas; comparar sus resultados; y decidirse por una u otra política. Los datos y la información utilizados para buscar datos probatorios del problema, determinar posibles opciones para resolverlo y proyectar los resultados que vayan a deparar esas opciones procedían de fuentes bibliográficas publicadas y de documentación inédita. Se llegó a la conclusión de que el problema de las políticas de lucha contra la perineumonía contagiosa bovina en el África subsahariana reside en la ausencia de servicios zoosanitarios en beneficios de los ganaderos cuyos animales están muy expuestos al riesgo de infección. Los autores proponen que el sector público y el privado suscriban acuerdos contractuales para respaldar la vacunación de los rebaños susceptibles en las regiones de endemismo. La aplicación de esta política incrementará la cobertura de vacunación de los rebaños vacunos susceptibles, que en la actualidad es escasa.

Risk factors for rotavirus infection in pigs in Busia and Teso subcounties, Western Kenya.

We analysed data that were previously collected for molecular characterisation of rotavirus (RV) groups A and C in pigs from Teso and Busia subcounties in Kenya to determine risk factors for its infection. The data included records from 239 randomly selected piglets aged between 1 and 6 months raised in free range and backyard production systems. RV infection was confirmed by screening of fresh faecal samples by using reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR); selected positive samples were subsequently sequenced and used for phylogenetic analysis. In this analysis, RV infection status was used as outcome variable, while the metadata collected at the time of sampling were used as predictors. A Bayesian hierarchical model which used integrated nested Laplace approximation (INLA) method was then fitted to the data. The model accounted for the spatial effect by using stochastic partial differential equations (SPDEs). Of the 239 samples screened, 206 were available for the analysis. Descriptive analyses showed that 27.7 % (57/206) of the samples were positive for rotaviruses groups A and C, 18.5 % were positive for group A rotaviruses, 5.3 % were positive for group C rotaviruses, while 3.9 % had co-infections from both groups of rotaviruses. The spatial effect was insignificant, and a simple (non-spatial) model showed that piglets (≤4 months) and those pigs kept in free range systems had higher risk of exposure to rotavirus infection as compared to older pigs (>4 months) and those tethered or housed, respectively. Intervention measures that will target these high-risk groups of pigs will be beneficial to farmers.

Estimation of impact of contagious bovine pleuropneumonia on pastoralists in Kenya.

Contagious bovine pleuropneumonia (CBPP) is an infectious disease which impacts cattle production in sub-Saharan Africa. To adequately allocate resources for its control, there is a need to assess its impact on cattle producers. The present study estimated the impact of CBPP on pastoralists through analysis of various strategies employed for its control in cattle herds including: preventive vaccination, antimicrobial treatment, slaughter of clinical cases and other combinations of these control strategies. The assessment was based on a loss-expenditure frontier framework to identify a control strategy with minimum cost from both expenditures on control strategies and output losses due to mortalities, reduced milk yield, reduced weight gain and reduced fertility rate. The analysis was undertaken in a stochastic spreadsheet model. The control strategy with minimum cost per herd was preventive vaccination with an estimated cost of US$ 193 (90% CI; 170-215) per 100 cows per year, while slaughter of clinical cases had an estimated cost of US$ 912 (90% CI; 775-1055) per 100 cows per year. The impact of CBPP to the nation was estimated at US$ 7.6 (90% CI; 6.5-8.7) million per year. Yet, if all pastoralists whose cattle are at high risk of infection adopted preventive vaccination, the aggregate national impact would be US$ 3.3 (90% CI; 2.9-3.7) million per year, with savings amounting to US$ 4.3 million through reallocation of control expenditures. The analysis predicted that control of CBPP in Kenya is profitable through preventive vaccination. However, further research is recommended for the technical and financial feasibility of implementing a vaccine delivery system in pastoral areas where CBPP is endemic.

Isolation of E. coli O157:H7 from milk and cattle faeces from urban dairy farming and non dairy farming neighbour households in Dagoretti Division, Nairobi, Kenya: prevalence and risk factors.

OBJECTIVE: To estimate the prevalence of E. coli O157:H7 in milk and cattle faecal samples dairy and non dairy neighbouring households and to relate this prevalence to the risk to human health. DESIGN: Cross sectional study. SETTING: Urban and peri-urban households of Dagoretti, Division, Nairobi, Kenya. SUBJECTS: Dairy farming households and non dairy farming neighbouring households. RESULTS: E coli O157:H7 was isolated from milk samples at three of 136 non-dairy neighbour households (2.2% C.I. 0.5%,6.3%) but was not found in any of the milk samples from the 260 milk samples from dairy households (0% C.I. 0.0%,1.4%). E.coli O157:H7 was also found in fifteen of 285 pooled household cattle faecal sample (5.2%, C.I. 3.1%, 8.7%). One of the faecal isolates was found to have the marker for the production of VT1. Discussions with focus groups revealed that the participants had limited knowledge about E. coli O157:H7. Focus group discussions and household questionnaires revealed practices increasing risk of E. coli infections to humans are associated with milking hygiene, drinking water source and treatment, and manure handling. CONCLUSIONS: E. coli O157:H7 exists in urban setting and continuous surveillance is needed in case conditions and practices change favoring an increase in its prevalence and transmission to people.