Effect of Moringa Oleifera leaf powder supplementation on reducing anemia in children below two years in Kisarawe District, Tanzania.

Anemia is a nutritional disorder that affects mostly children below 2 years and is mainly contributed by iron deficiency. Moringa oleifera leaves are rich in iron and other essential nutrients necessary for iron metabolism. We investigated the effect of M. oleifera leaf powder supplementation on reducing anemia among children below 2 years. A community-based interventional study was conducted that enrolled 95 anemic children who were followed for 6 months. The intervention communities received M. oleifera leaf powder and nutrition education, while control communities only received nutrition education. Changes on mean hemoglobin (Hb) concentration and anemia prevalence were compared between the two groups using t test and proportional test where appropriate. At baseline, the mean Hb concentrations of control and intervention groups were 7.9 g/dl (SD = 1.3) and 8.3 g/dl (SD = 1.6) g/L, respectively (p-value = 0.0943). After 6 months, anemia prevalence significantly decreased in the intervention group by 53.6% (100%-46.4%; p < 0.001) compared to 13.6% (100%-86.4%; p = 0.005) in control community. The mean Hb was 10.9 g/dl (95% CI: 10.2-11.4) for intervention and 9.4 g/dl (95% 7.8-10.1) for control (p-value = 0.002). The effect was also observed in the reduction of the prevalence of moderate and severe anemia in the intervention communities by 68.2% and 77.9%, respectively, and by 23.3% and 56.9%, respectively, in the control communities. Increasing amount and time of using M. oleifera supplementation resulted to significant reduction in anemia cases therefore can be used as complementary solution in addressing anemia among children especially when the use of infant formulas and fortified food product is very poor.

Clinical, Virologic, and Epidemiologic Characteristics of Dengue Outbreak, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania, 2014.

We investigated a dengue outbreak in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania, in 2014, that was caused by dengue virus (DENV) serotype 2. DENV infection was present in 101 (20.9%) of 483 patients. Patient age and location of residence were associated with infection. Seven (4.0%) of 176 patients were co-infected with malaria and DENV.

The Risk of Dengue Virus Transmission in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania during an Epidemic Period of 2014.

BACKGROUND: In 2010, 2012, 2013 and 2014 dengue outbreaks have been reported in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. However, there is no comprehensive data on the risk of transmission of dengue in the country. The objective of this study was to assess the risk of transmission of dengue in Dar es Salaam during the 2014 epidemic. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: This cross-sectional study was conducted in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania during the dengue outbreak of 2014. The study involved Ilala, Kinondoni and Temeke districts. Adult mosquitoes were collected using carbon dioxide-propane powered Mosquito Magnet Liberty Plus traps. In each household compound, water-holding containers were examined for mosquito larvae and pupae. Dengue virus infection of mosquitoes was determined using real-time reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR). Partial amplification and sequencing of dengue virus genome in infected mosquitoes was performed. A total of 1,000 adult mosquitoes were collected. Over half (59.9%) of the adult mosquitoes were collected in Kinondoni. Aedes aegypti accounted for 17.2% of the mosquitoes of which 90.6% were from Kinondoni. Of a total of 796 houses inspected, 38.3% had water-holding containers in their premises. Kinondoni had the largest proportion of water-holding containers (57.7%), followed by Temeke (31.4%) and Ilala (23.4%). The most common breeding containers for the Aedes mosquitoes were discarded plastic containers and tires. High Aedes infestation indices were observed for all districts and sites, with a house index of 18.1% in Ilala, 25.5% in Temeke and 35.3% in Kinondoni. The respective container indices were 77.4%, 65.2% and 80.2%. Of the reared larvae and pupae, 5,250 adult mosquitoes emerged, of which 61.9% were Ae. aegypti. Overall, 27 (8.18) of the 330 pools of Ae. aegypti were positive for dengue virus. On average, the overall maximum likelihood estimate (MLE) indicates pooled infection rate of 8.49 per 1,000 mosquitoes (95%CI = 5.72-12.16). There was no significant difference in pooled infection rates between the districts. Dengue viruses in the tested mosquitoes clustered into serotype 2 cosmopolitan genotype. CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE: Ae. aegypti is the main vector of dengue in Dar es Salaam and breeds mainly in medium size plastic containers and tires. The Aedes house indices were high, indicating that the three districts were at high risk of dengue transmission. The 2014 dengue outbreak was caused by Dengue virus serotype 2. The high mosquito larval and pupal indices in the area require intensification of vector surveillance along with source reduction and health education.

The adaptive potential during nasopharyngeal colonisation of Streptococcus pneumoniae.

Adaptation to host defences and antimicrobials is critical for Streptococcus pneumoniae (the pneumococcus) during colonisation of the nasopharynx--its only ecological habitat. The pneumococcus is highly transformable with the genome between different strains varying widely in both gene content and gene sequence. Thus, mixed strains colonising together will expand the genetic reservoir--"supragenome" for this highly transformable microorganism, increasing its adaptive potential. The extent of the phenotypic and genotypic diversity of strains co-colonising in the nasopharynx was determined. In contrast to most carriage studies, which characterise single colonies, a systematic analysis of up to 20 colonies per colonisation was undertaken in Tanzanian children for 12 months. The serotype was determined by conventional serology and confirmed by DNA-based methods. The antibiotype for penicillin and co-trimoxazole was determined from the minimum inhibitory concentration determined by E-test. As representative of the genotype of strains the sequence types (STs) was determined by multilocus sequence typing (MLST). Of 61 colonisation events studied, seven (11.5%) had strains expressing multiple serotypes, with a maximum of five serotypes detected. Four colonisation events also had co-colonisation of penicillin and/or co-trimoxazole susceptible and non-susceptible pneumococci. Sequence typing revealed that 58% were unique to our cohort. Simultaneous colonisation of up to six STs with two expressing serotype 6B was seen. Re-isolation of either the same or different strains of serotype 6B was seen. Genetically related single-locus and double-locus variants were identified in our cohort that differed by multiple nucleotides. Multiple colony characterisation revealed phenotypic and genetic evidence of microevolution and a greater diversity of pneumococcal strains colonising together than previously observed, thus increasing the potential to adapt in response to the host environment during colonisation.

Cultivation of Oudemansiella tanzanica nom. prov. on agricultural solid wastes in Tanzania.

The edible mushroom Oudemansiella tanzanica nom. prov., which is new to science, has been studied as a potential crop to reduce agricultural solid wastes and increase domestic mushroom production. The substrates sawdust, sisal waste and paddy straw supplemented with chicken manure resulted in the highest biological efficiencies of any mushroom cultivated in Tanzania so far. In addition, the mushroom has one of the shortest cultivation cycles at 24 d. Despite the fact that the mushroom extracts substantial amounts of nutrients, the spent substrate can be used as fodder, as a soil conditioner and fertilizer and in bioremediation.