A soft systems approach of asthma management in children based on therapeutic education and e-learning.

One of the most common respiratory chronic diseases is asthma, with 5-16 % of world prevalence. In chronic disease, prevention, diagnosis, management, and palliation are the strategies for a care model; the patient-self management is fundamental with the so-called therapeutic education (TE) to train the patient in the necessary skills. The challenge of TE grows when the patient is a child or a person with special needs, even more in public health care in low- and middle-income countries. This is a problematic human situation, that needs soft system thinking. In this research, the analytic hierarchy process was used to determine the perceived importance of the factors that affect children's asthma health care in a public health institution in Mexico. The soft systems methodology (SSM) was applied to learn about the disease self-management, in order to obtain activities models and an action plan. According to AHP, human resources and education were percived as the most important among the factors that affect children health care within the institution. The perceived importance of two main subfactors (human resources training and TE) was around 34 %, which emphasizes the need to generate strategies for the improvement of the education of patients and health care providers. In MSS, the rich vision, the CATWOE, the root definition, and an activities model were proposed, including the application of an instructional design methodology (ADDIE) for the development of learning objects of asthma for children. Desirable and feasible actions and recommendations include the update of the national clinical practice guides, the use of control measures such as the Asthma Control Test, and a daily asthma diary to register the daily status of the breathing capacity, the drug administration, and the potential trigger events. The proposed model can be used as part of a systemic patient-and-family centered approach for chronic care model (CCM), particularly in diseases unsuitable for prevention interventions.

Energy-Efficient Edge and Cloud Image Classification with Multi-Reservoir Echo State Network and Data Processing Units.

In an era dominated by Internet of Things (IoT) devices, software-as-a-service (SaaS) platforms, and rapid advances in cloud and edge computing, the demand for efficient and lightweight models suitable for resource-constrained devices such as data processing units (DPUs) has surged. Traditional deep learning models, such as convolutional neural networks (CNNs), pose significant computational and memory challenges, limiting their use in resource-constrained environments. Echo State Networks (ESNs), based on reservoir computing principles, offer a promising alternative with reduced computational complexity and shorter training times. This study explores the applicability of ESN-based architectures in image classification and weather forecasting tasks, using benchmarks such as the MNIST, FashionMnist, and CloudCast datasets. Through comprehensive evaluations, the Multi-Reservoir ESN (MRESN) architecture emerges as a standout performer, demonstrating its potential for deployment on DPUs or home stations. In exploiting the dynamic adaptability of MRESN to changing input signals, such as weather forecasts, continuous on-device training becomes feasible, eliminating the need for static pre-trained models. Our results highlight the importance of lightweight models such as MRESN in cloud and edge computing applications where efficiency and sustainability are paramount. This study contributes to the advancement of efficient computing practices by providing novel insights into the performance and versatility of MRESN architectures. By facilitating the adoption of lightweight models in resource-constrained environments, our research provides a viable alternative for improved efficiency and scalability in modern computing paradigms.

Dynamic shimming in the cervical spinal cord for multi-echo gradient-echo imaging at 3 T.

Obtaining high quality images of the spinal cord with MRI is difficult, partly due to the fact that the spinal cord is surrounded by a number of structures that have differing magnetic susceptibility. This causes inhomogeneities in the magnetic field, which in turn lead to image artifacts. In order to address this issue, linear compensation gradients can be employed. The latter can be generated using an MRI scanner's first order gradient coils and adjusted on a per-slice basis, in order to correct for through-plane ("z") magnetic field gradients. This approach is referred to as z-shimming. The aim of this study is two-fold. The first aim was to replicate aspects of a previous study wherein z-shimming was found to improve image quality in T2*-weighted echo-planar imaging. Our second aim was to improve upon the z-shimming approach by including in-plane compensation gradients and adjusting the compensation gradients during the image acquisition process so that they take into account respiration-induced magnetic field variations. We refer to this novel approach as realtime dynamic shimming. Measurements performed in a group of 12 healthy volunteers at 3 T show improved signal homogeneity along the spinal cord when using z-shimming. Signal homogeneity may be further improved by including realtime compensation for respiration-induced field gradients and by also doing this for gradients along the in-plane axes.

Consensus on complementary feeding from the Latin American Society for Pediatric Gastroenterology, Hepatology and Nutrition: COCO 2023.

Complementary feeding (CF) is defined as the feeding of infants that complements breastfeeding, or alternatively, feeding with a breast milk substitute, and is a process that is more than simply a guide as to what and how to introduce foods. The information provided by healthcare professionals must be up-to-date and evidence-based. Most of the recommendations that appear in the different international guidelines and position papers are widely applicable, but some must be regionalized or adapted to fit the conditions and reality of each geographic zone. The Nutrition Working Group of the Latin American Society for Pediatric Gastroenterology, Hepatology and Nutrition (LASPGHAN) summoned a group of experts from each of the society's member countries, to develop a consensus on CF, incorporating, whenever possible, local information adapted to the reality of the region. The aim of the present document is to show the results of that endeavor. Utilizing the Delphi method, a total of 34 statements on relevant aspects of CF were evaluated, discussed, and voted upon.

E-1500: Survey on feeding practices in the first 1,500 days of life, recommended by healthcare professionals in Latin America.

INTRODUCTION: Health-disease processes are established and programmed in the first 1500 days of life, a period in which nutrition and the microbiota play a fundamental role. Feeding practices vary, according to regional sociocultural characteristics. The Early Nutrition Group of the Latin American Society for Pediatric Gastroenterology, Hepatology and Nutrition (LASPGHAN) established the goal of identifying the main feeding practices in the first 1500 days that were recommended by health professionals in Latin America. MATERIALS AND METHODS: A survey was conducted on the aspects of maternal-infant and young child nutrition during the first 1500 days of life. An open invitation was extended to Latin American healthcare professionals to anonymously answer the online survey. RESULTS: A total of 1284 surveys from participants in 18 Latin American countries were analyzed. The mean age of the participants was 37.14 ±â€¯11.1 years, 75.7% were women, 64.7% were physicians, and the rest were nutritionists/nutriologists. A total of 71.4% were familiar with the concept of the first 1000 days of life, 95% answered that exclusive breastfeeding should be carried out up to 6 months of age, and 34.3% responded that complementary feeding should be begun between 4 and 6 months of age. There was scant knowledge regarding nutrition in the pregnant woman. Adherence to traditional complementary feeding practices was evident. CONCLUSIONS: In a group of Latin American healthcare professionals, knowledge about nutrition in the first 1000-1500 days of life of an individual is still incomplete and insufficient, showing the need for continued training of healthcare professionals, with respect to those themes.

SARS-CoV-2 transmission dynamics in the urban-rural interface.

OBJECTIVES: As the world responds to the coronavirus outbreak, the role of public health in ensuring equitable health care that considers the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) dynamics in rural communities is still a challenge. The same suppression and mitigation measures have been implemented homogeneously, ignoring the differences between urban and rural areas. We propose an epidemiological model and simulate the dynamics of SARS-CoV-2 in urban and rural areas considering the interaction between these regions. STUDY DESIGN: This was a population modeling study. METHODS: A compartmental epidemiological model was formulated to simulate the transmission of SARS-CoV-2 in urban and rural areas. We use the model to investigate the impact of control strategies focused on the urban-rural interface to contain the epidemic size of SARS-CoV-2 in rural areas. RESULTS: Considering five different levels for the exposition rate in urban areas and keeping intrarural and urban-rural exposition rates fixed, the preventive measures reduce the size and delay the peak for the urban infectives. The response of infected individuals and cumulative deaths in rural areas upon changes in the urban dynamics was small but not negligible. On the other hand, preventive measures focused on the urban-rural interface impact the number of infected individuals and deaths in rural areas. CONCLUSIONS: The maintenance of SARS-CoV-2 in rural areas depends on the interaction of individuals at the urban-rural interface. Thus, restrictive measures established by the governments would not be required within rural areas. We highlight the importance of focused preventive measures on the urban-rural interface to reduce the exposure and avoid the transmission of SARS-CoV-2 to rural communities.

Inferring the connectivity of coupled chaotic oscillators using Kalman filtering.

Inferring the interactions between coupled oscillators is a significant open problem in complexity science, with multiple interdisciplinary applications. While the Kalman filter (KF) technique is a well-known tool, widely used for data assimilation and parameter estimation, to the best of our knowledge, it has not yet been used for inferring the connectivity of coupled chaotic oscillators. Here we demonstrate that KF allows reconstructing the interaction topology and the coupling strength of a network of mutually coupled Rössler-like chaotic oscillators. We show that the connectivity can be inferred by considering only the observed dynamics of a single variable of the three that define the phase space of each oscillator. We also show that both the coupling strength and the network architecture can be inferred even when the oscillators are close to synchronization. Simulation results are provided to show the effectiveness and applicability of the proposed method.

CNS Hypomyelination Disrupts Axonal Conduction and Behavior in Larval Zebrafish.

Myelination is essential for central nervous system (CNS) formation, health and function. As a model organism, larval zebrafish have been extensively employed to investigate the molecular and cellular basis of CNS myelination, because of their genetic tractability and suitability for non-invasive live cell imaging. However, it has not been assessed to what extent CNS myelination affects neural circuit function in zebrafish larvae, prohibiting the integration of molecular and cellular analyses of myelination with concomitant network maturation. To test whether larval zebrafish might serve as a suitable platform with which to study the effects of CNS myelination and its dysregulation on circuit function, we generated zebrafish myelin regulatory factor (myrf) mutants with CNS-specific hypomyelination and investigated how this affected their axonal conduction properties and behavior. We found that myrf mutant larvae exhibited increased latency to perform startle responses following defined acoustic stimuli. Furthermore, we found that hypomyelinated animals often selected an impaired response to acoustic stimuli, exhibiting a bias toward reorientation behavior instead of the stimulus-appropriate startle response. To begin to study how myelination affected the underlying circuitry, we established electrophysiological protocols to assess various conduction properties along single axons. We found that the hypomyelinated myrf mutants exhibited reduced action potential conduction velocity and an impaired ability to sustain high-frequency action potential firing. This study indicates that larval zebrafish can be used to bridge molecular and cellular investigation of CNS myelination with multiscale assessment of neural circuit function.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Myelination of CNS axons is essential for their health and function, and it is now clear that myelination is a dynamic life-long process subject to modulation by neuronal activity. However, it remains unclear precisely how changes to myelination affects animal behavior and underlying action potential conduction along axons in intact neural circuits. In recent years, zebrafish have been employed to study cellular and molecular mechanisms of myelination, because of their relatively simple, optically transparent, experimentally tractable vertebrate nervous system. Here we find that changes to myelination alter the behavior of young zebrafish and action potential conduction along individual axons, providing a platform to integrate molecular, cellular, and circuit level analyses of myelination using this model.

Photoacoustic characterization of wheat bread mixed with Moringa oleifera.

Photoacoustic spectroscopy is applied to evaluate the impact of Moringa at different concentrations (0, 1.25, 2.5, 5 and 10%) on the elaboration, sanity, texture, and color of wheat bread. It was found that: i) Photoacoustic signal amplitude values of bread significantly increase from 37 to 90% when moringa powder concentration raises from 1.25% to 10%, at 300 nm wavelength. ii) Comparing the photoacoustic signal values at 300, 330, and 370 nm wavelengths, produced by the different bread types, there were statistically significant differences. iii) The sanitary quality of bread mixed with a 2.5% of moringa is relatively higher than the ones obtained for other concentrations, such that the number of fungal colonies were reduced by 99% in comparison with the control bread without moringa, after six days of storage. Moringa at 2.5% of concentration could thus improve the sanitary quality of wheat bread. iv) The addition of moringa for making bread slows down its textural changes (hardness, elasticity, cohesiveness, resilience, and chewiness) during storage. v) Finally, the highest correlation between the photoacoustic amplitude and the moringa concentration occurs at the wavelengths of 300 and 330 nm, which could be related to significant changes in the content of flavonoids and phenolic acids.

Dietary fiber and the microbiota: A narrative review by a group of experts from the Asociación Mexicana de Gastroenterología.

Dietary fiber intake is one of the most influential and efficacious strategies for modulating the gut microbiota. Said fiber can be digested by the microbiota itself, producing numerous metabolites, which include the short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs). SCFAs have local and systemic functions that impact the composition and function of the gut microbiota, and consequently, human health. The aim of the present narrative review was to provide a document that serves as a frame of reference for a clear understanding of dietary fiber and its direct and indirect effects on health. The direct benefits of dietary fiber intake can be dependent on or independent of the gut microbiota. The use of dietary fiber by the gut microbiota involves several factors, including the fiber's physiochemical characteristics. Dietary fiber type influences the gut microbiota because not all bacterial species have the same capacity to produce the enzymes needed for its degradation. A low-fiber diet can affect the balance of the SCFAs produced. Dietary fiber indirectly benefits cardiometabolic health, digestive health, certain functional gastrointestinal disorders, and different diseases.

Precise correction of Duchenne muscular dystrophy exon deletion mutations by base and prime editing.

Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) is a fatal muscle disease caused by the lack of dystrophin, which maintains muscle membrane integrity. We used an adenine base editor (ABE) to modify splice donor sites of the dystrophin gene, causing skipping of a common DMD deletion mutation of exon 51 (∆Ex51) in cardiomyocytes derived from human induced pluripotent stem cells, restoring dystrophin expression. Prime editing was also capable of reframing the dystrophin open reading frame in these cardiomyocytes. Intramuscular injection of ∆Ex51 mice with adeno-associated virus serotype-9 encoding ABE components as a split-intein trans-splicing system allowed gene editing and disease correction in vivo. Our findings demonstrate the effectiveness of nucleotide editing for the correction of diverse DMD mutations with minimal modification of the genome, although improved delivery methods will be required before these strategies can be used to sufficiently edit the genome in patients with DMD.

QSAR models for insecticidal properties of plant essential oils on the housefly (Musca domestica L.).

The fumigant and topical activities exhibited by 27 plant-derived essentials oils (EOs) on adult M. domestica housefly are predicted through the Quantitative Structure-Activity Relationship (QSAR) theory. These molecular structure based calculations are performed on 253 structurally diverse compounds from the EOs, where the number of constituents in each essential oil mixture varies between 2 to 24. A large number of 86,048 non-conformational mixture descriptors are derived as linear combinations of the molecular descriptors of the EO components. Two strategies are compared for the mixture descriptor formulation, which consider or avoid the use of the chemical composition. The multivariable linear regression QSAR models of the present work are useful for fumigant and topical applications, describing predictive parallelisms for the insecticidal activity of the analysed complex mixtures.

Estimación de riesgo cardiovascular ateroesclerótico en pacientes adultos sin sospecha de cifras tensionales elevadas / Estimation of aterosclerotic cardiovascular risk in adult patients without a suspicion of having high pressure readings / Estimativa do risco cardiovascular aterosclerótico em pacientes adultos sem suspeita de níveis elevados de tensão arterial

RESUMEN Introducción: Las enfermedades cardiovasculares representan la primera causa de muerte en el mundo. La estimación del Riesgo Cardiovascular (RCV) podría disminuir la carga de la enfermedad y mejorar la calidad de vida de los pacientes. Objetivo: Estimar el RCV en pacientes sin sospecha de cifras tensionales elevadas en una Clínica de Medicina Familiar en la Ciudad de México. Métodos: Estudio transversal descriptivo, participaron 101 pacientes de sexo masculino y femenino, de 40 a 69 años, sin diagnóstico previo de Hipertensión Arterial (HTA), pero que presentaron cifras tensionales altas al momento del estudio. Para diagnosticar HTA se utilizaron los criterios de la Asociación Americana del Corazón-2017. El RCV se evaluó con el ASCVD-Risk Estimator Plus. Resultados: En la muestra la HTA estuvo presente en el 55.4 %, 44.6 % manifestaron presión arterial elevada. Respecto al RCV, 54.4 % presentaron bajo riesgo, 11.8 % riesgo límite, 25.7 % intermedio y 7.9 % alto. Los factores de RCV con mayor prevalencia fueron diabetes mellitus tipo 2 (DM2), sobrepeso, obesidad y elevación de cifras tensionales. Discusión: Un porcentaje importante de participantes presentó RCV en sus diferentes categorías. Se requiere ser más estrictos en los parámetros utilizados para definir la HTA; pues sin intervenciones oportunas las enfermedades cardiovasculares continuarán incrementándose. Conclusión: Cerca de la mitad de los casos presentaron un RCV de límite a alto. Existió alta prevalencia de factores de riesgo individuales como DM2, HTA y dislipidemia. Se deben fortalecer búsquedas intencionadas de pacientes con características similares a las de este estudio para prevenir el desarrollo de enfermedades cardiovasculares.

ABSTRACT Introduction: Cardiovascular diseases are the main cause of death in the world. The estimation of the Cardiovascular Risk (CVR) could both reduce the burden of the illness and improve the quality of life of the patients. Objective: To estimate the CVR in adult patients without a suspicion of having high pressure readings in a Clinic of Family Medicine in Mexico City. Methods: This is a descriptive and transversal study with a sample of 101 male and female patients in the range of 40 to 69 years old, who did not have a previous hypertension diagnosis but who, at the moment of this study, showed high tension readings. The American Heart Association 2017 criteria were used. The cardiovascular risk was assessed using the ASCVD-Risk Estimator Plus. Results: Arterial hypertension readings were found in 55.4 % of the sample. 54.4 % of the sample met the criteria for low risk, 11.8 % for limit risk, 25.7 % for medium risk, and 7.9 % for high risk. The most prevalent factors associated with cardiovascular risk were type 2 diabetes mellitus, overweight, obesity, and hypertension. Discussion: An important percentage of the sample showed cardiovascular risk to some degree, suggesting that perhaps using stricter parameters to define hypertension could prompt more timely interventions. Conclusion: Considering both the high percentage of participants who demonstrated having a cardiovascular risk of concern and the high prevalence of risk factors such as Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus, hypertension, and overweight, timely monitoring interventions should be promoted in order to prevent the development of cardiovascular diseases.

RESUMO Introdução: As doenças cardiovasculares representam a principal causa de morte a nível mundial. A estimativa do risco cardiovascular (RCV) poderia diminuir o peso da doença e melhorar a qualidade de vida dos pacientes. Objetivo: Estimar o RCV em pacientes sem suspeita de tensão arterial elevada em uma Clínica de Medicina Familiar na Cidade do México. Métodos: Um estudo descritivo transversal envolvendo 101 pacientes do sexo masculino e feminino com idades entre os 40 - 69 anos, sem diagnóstico prévio de hipertensão (HTA), mas com tensão arterial elevada no momento do estudo. Os critérios da American Heart Association-2017 foram utilizados para diagnosticar o HTA. O RCV foi avaliado utilizando o ASCVD-Risk Estimator Plus. Resultados: Na amostra, a HTA esteve presente em 55,4 %, 44,6 % reportou tensão arterial elevada. Em relação à RCV, 54,4 % apresentavam baixo risco, 11,8 % risco limite, 25,7 % risco intermédio e 7,9 % alto risco. Os fatores de RCV mais prevalentes foram a diabetes melito tipo 2 (DM2), excesso de peso, obesidade e tensão arterial elevada. Discussão: Uma percentagem significativa de participantes tinha RCV em diferentes categorias. Há necessidade de ser mais rigoroso nos parâmetros utilizados para definir a HTA; sem intervenções atempadas, as doenças cardiovasculares continuarão aumentando. Conclusão: Quase metade dos casos tinham um limite de RCV elevado. Havia uma elevada prevalência de fatores de risco individuais tais como DM2, hipertensão e dislipidemia. A procura intencional de pacientes com características semelhantes às deste estudo deve ser reforçada para prevenir o desenvolvimento de doenças cardiovasculares.

High-yield production of major T-cell ESAT6-CFP10 fusion antigen of M. tuberculosis complex employing codon-optimized synthetic gene.

Translation engineering and bioinformatics have accelerated the rate at which gene sequences can be improved to generate multi-epitope proteins. Strong antigenic proteins for tuberculosis diagnosis include individual ESAT6 and CFP10 proteins or derived peptides. Obtention of heterologous multi-component antigens in E. coli without forming inclusion bodies remain a biotechnological challenge. The gene sequence for ESAT6-CFP10 fusion antigen was optimized by codon bias adjust for high-level expression as a soluble protein. The obtained fusion protein of 23.7 kDa was observed by SDS-PAGE and Western blot analysis after Ni-affinity chromatography and the yield of expressed soluble protein reached a concentration of approximately 67 mg/L in shake flask culture after IPTG induction. Antigenicity was evaluated at 4 µg/mL in whole blood cultures from bovines, and protein stimuli were assessed using a specific in vitro IFN-γ release assay. The hybrid protein was able to stimulate T-cell specific responses of bovine TB suspects. The results indicate that improved E. coli codon usage is a good and cost-effective strategy to potentialize large scale production of multi-epitope proteins with sustained antigenic properties for diagnostic purposes.

Composition effects on photooxidative membrane destabilization by TiO2 nanoparticles.

Membrane interactions and photooxidative membrane destabilization of titanium dioxide (TiO2) nanoparticles were investigated, focusing on the effects of membrane composition, notably phospholipid headgroup charge and presence of cholesterol. For this, we employed a battery of state-of-the-art methods for studies of bilayers formed by zwitterionic palmitoyloleoylphosphatidylcholine (POPC) containing also polyunsaturated palmitoylarachidonoylphosphocholine (PAPC), as well as its mixtures with anionic palmitoyloleoylphosphatidylglycerol (POPG) and cholesterol. It was found that the TiO2 nanoparticles display close to zero charge at pH 7.4, resulting in aggregation. At pH 3.4, in contrast, the 6 nm TiO2 nanoparticles are well dispersed due to a strongly positive ζ-potential. Mirroring this pH dependence, TiO2 nanoparticles were observed to bind to negatively charged lipid bilayers at pH 3.4, but much less so at pH 7.4. While nanoparticle binding has some destabilizing effect alone, illumination with ultraviolet (UV) light accentuates membrane destabilization, a result of oxidative stress caused by generated reactive oxygen species (ROS). Neutron reflectivity (NR), quartz crystal microbalance (QCM), and small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS) results all demonstrate that membrane composition strongly influences membrane interactions and photooxidative destabilization of lipid bilayers. In particular, the presence of anionic POPG makes the bilayers more sensitive to oxidative destabilization, whereas a stabilizing effect was observed in the presence of cholesterol. Also, structural aspects of peroxidation were found to depend strongly on membrane composition, notably the presence of anionic phospholipids. The results show that membrane interactions and UV-induced ROS generation act in concert and need to be considered together to understand effects of lipid membrane composition on UV-triggered oxidative destabilization by TiO2 nanoparticles, e.g., in the context of oxidative damage of bacteria and cells.

El complejo pre-Bötzinger: generación y modulación del ritmo respiratorio / Pre-Bötzinger complex: Generation and modulation of respiratory rhythm

Introducción: En los mamíferos, el complejo pre-Bötzinger (preBötC) es una red neuronal bilateral y simétrica localizada en el tallo cerebral, la cual es indispensable para la generación y modulación del ritmo respiratorio. En humanos existen pocos estudios acerca del preBötC y su relación con enfermedades neurológicas no ha sido descrita. Sin embargo, la importancia del preBötC en el control neural del ritmo respiratorio y su posible participación en enfermedades neurológicas en humanos ha sido mostrada gracias a la manipulación farmacológica y de lesiones del preBötC realizadas en modelos animales in vivo e in vitro. Método: En esta revisión describimos los efectos de algunos fármacos sobre la actividad inspiratoria in vitro en el modelo de rebanada transversal del tallo cerebral que contiene el preBötC, y algunos experimentos in vivo. La farmacología fue clasificada de acuerdo con los principales sistemas de neurotransmisión y con la importancia de los fármacos como estimuladores o inhibidores de la actividad del preBötC y, por tanto, de la generación del ritmo respiratorio. Conclusiones: El neurólogo clínico encontrará esta información relevante para entender cómo el sistema nervioso central genera el ritmo respiratorio y, además, podrá relacionarla con las observaciones hechas durante su práctica

Introduction: In mammals, the preBötzinger complex (preBötC) is a bilateral and symmetrical neural network located in the brainstem which is essential for the generation and modulation of respiratory rhythm. There are few human studies about the preBötC and, its relationship with neurological diseases has not been described. However, the importance of the preBötC in neural control of breathing and its potential participation in neurological diseases in humans, has been suggested based on pharmacological manipulation and lesion of the preBötC in animal models, both in vivo and in vitro. Method: In this review, we describe the effects of some drugs on the inspiratory activity in vitro in a transverse slice that contains the preBötC, as well as some in vivo experiments. Drugs were classified according to their effects on the main neurotransmitter systems and their importance as stimulators or inhibitors of preBötC activity and therefore for the generation of the respiratory rhythm. Conclusion: Clinical neurologists will find this information relevant to understanding how the central nervous system generates the respiratory rhythm and may also relate this information to the findings made in daily practice