Application of artificial neural networks in assigned leadership and academic success in medical graduates.

OBJECTIVE: To apply an artificial neural networks analysis (ANN) model to identify variables that predict assigned leadership and academic success in graduates of six generations of medical school. METHOD: Analytical, retrospective, comparative study. A total of 1434 graduates participated. A questionnaire was sent to them by e-mail including a voluntary participation consent. A multivariate statistical analysis using multi-layer perceptron ANN, decision trees and driver analysis was performed. RESULTS: The ANN identified seven independent variables that predicted professional success and eight for leadership in medical graduates. The decision trees identified significant differences in the variables professional performance (p = 0.000), age (p = 0.005) and continuing education activities (p = 0.034) related to professional success, and for leadership the variables gender (p = 0.000), high school grades (p = 0.042), performing clinical practice during the social service year (p = 0.002) and continuing education activities (p = 0.011). CONCLUSIONS: The ANN identified the main independent predictor variables of professional success and leadership of the graduates. This study opens up two new lines of research little studied with the techniques of in the area of medicine.

OBJETIVO: Aplicar un modelo de análisis de redes neuronales artificiales (RNA) para identificar las variables que predicen el liderazgo asignado y el éxito académico en egresados de seis generaciones de la carrera de Medicina. MÉTODO: Estudio analítico, retrospectivo y comparativo. Participaron 1434 egresados. Se envió un cuestionario por correo electrónico que incluyó el consentimiento de participación voluntaria. Se realizó análisis estadístico multivariado mediante RNA del tipo perceptrón multicapa, árboles de decisión y análisis de impulsores. RESULTADOS: Las RNA identificaron siete variables independientes que predijeron el éxito profesional y ocho para el liderazgo en los médicos egresados. Los árboles de decisión identificaron diferencias significativas en las variables desempeño profesional (p = 0.000), edad (p = 0.005) y actividades de educación continua (p = 0.034) relacionadas con el éxito profesional, y para el liderazgo las variables sexo (p = 0.000), promedio en el bachillerato (p = 0.042), realizar práctica clínica en el servicio social (p = 0.002) y actividades de educación continua (p = 0.011). ­. CONCLUSIONES: Las RNA identificaron las principales variables independientes predictoras del éxito profesional y el liderazgo de los egresados. El estudio abre dos líneas de investigación poco estudiadas con las técnicas de RNA en el área de la medicina.

Characteristics among six generations of medicine graduates.

BACKGROUND: Medical graduates follow-up programs allow the improvement of the curriculum of the Medicine career. Through identifying opportunity areas and strengthening points, institutions become increasingly competitive. OBJECTIVE: Identify the socio-demographic, formative, labor insertion and satisfaction characteristics among six generations of graduates of the Medical School of the Faculty of Medicine of the National Autonomous University of Mexico (2004-2009). METHOD: It is a descriptive, cross-sectional, retrospective, comparative study integrating the answers of mailed electronic questionnaires to 5295 graduates who concluded studies between 2004 and 2009. Descriptive and inferential techniques were used for analysis. RESULTS: An upward trend in the number of years to conclude the career was identified and an increase in failed assignments in the last three generations. Noticeable was also that, as time went by, the incorporation of physicians into the labor market was slower. Although the percentage of general unemployment was very low (2.9%). CONCLUSIONS: There are no major changes in the characteristics of the Medicine graduates. Although it is necessary to identify the reason for the increased in failed assignments which affects the length of completion. Further improvement in Research and Social Medicine programs are to be considered.

ANTECEDENTES: Los programas de seguimiento de egresados permiten mejorar los programas y el currículo de la carrera de Medicina, identificando las áreas de oportunidad y haciendo más competitivas a las instituciones educativas. OBJETIVO: Identificar las características sociodemográficas, formativas, de inserción laboral y de satisfacción, en seis generaciones de egresados de la carrera de Medicina de la Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México (2004-2009). MÉTODO: Estudio descriptivo, transversal, retrospectivo y comparativo, con 5295 egresados de la carrera de Medicina que concluyeron entre 2004 y 2009. Se envió un cuestionario por correo electrónico a cada uno de los egresados y se analizaron los resultados mediante técnicas descriptivas e inferenciales. RESULTADOS: Se observó un incremento en el número de años para concluir la carrera y un aumento en el número de materias reprobadas en las últimas tres generaciones. Además, hubo mayor lentitud en la inserción laboral en el mismo periodo, aunque el porcentaje de desempleo general fue muy bajo (2.9%). CONCLUSIONES: No hay cambios en la caracterización de los egresados respecto a generaciones anteriores; no obstante, será fundamental identificar las causas del incremento en el número de materias reprobadas que está afectando la eficiencia terminal, además de mejorar los programas de investigación epidemiológica y socio-médica.

Training of general practitioners, a Mexican medical school curriculum evaluation / Formación de médicos generales, evaluación curricular en una escuela mexicana de medicina

Background: Educational curricula require constant improvement to respond to the needs of students, institutions and society. Objective: To evaluate the Plan de Estudios 2010 of the Facultad de Medicina de la Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México. Methods: Documentary and qualitative study of three phases. First, revision of trends of general medicine in special databases and comparison of curricula between universities. Second, focus groups with clinical teachers and basic sciences to investigate experiences and opinions in relation to trends in general medicine. Third, a "Generalists Committee" was convened to whom the results were presented (phase one and two) and the recommendations were adapted to adapt the results to the general practitioner's context. The participants were informed about the research objective and their participation was voluntary, the anonymity of theirs comments was protected. Results: The trend towards specialization in clinical practice defines the future of general medicine, and the administrative uses have an impact on the practices of the general practitioner and on the patient's medical relationship. Conclusion: Various aspects mainly educational and assistance hindered the quality of the practice of general medicine.

Introducción: los currículos educativos requieren estar en constante perfeccionamiento para responder a las necesidades de estudiantes, instituciones y de la sociedad. Objetivo: evaluar el Plan de Estudios 2010 de la carrera de medicina de la Facultad de Medicina de la Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México. Métodos: estudio documental y cualitativo, de tres fases. En la primera se revisaron las tendencias de la medicina general en bases de datos especializadas y se compararon los planes de estudios entre universidades. En la segunda, se realizaron grupos focales con docentes clínicos y de ciencias básicas para indagar experiencias y opiniones en relación con las tendencias de la medicina general. En la tercera, se convocó a un "Comité de Generalistas" a quienes se les presentaron los resultados de las fases anteriores, y se realizaron las recomendaciones pertinentes para adecuar los resultados al contexto del médico general. La participación de los entrevistados fue voluntaria, fueron informados sobre el objetivo de investigación y se resguardó el anonimato de sus testimonios. Resultados: la tendencia hacia la especialidad en la práctica clínica define el futuro de la medicina general; asimismo, los intereses administrativos repercuten en las prácticas del médico general y en la relación médico-paciente. Conclusión: diversos aspectos, principalmente educativos y asistenciales, obstaculizan la calidad de la práctica de la medicina general.

Reprobación en estudiantes de Medicina de la Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México / Academic failure in medical students from the National Autonomous University of Mexico

Introducción: la reprobación es una de las principales manifestaciones de fracaso escolar, generalmente suele ser relacionada con factores de origen personal, económico, social, cultural, docente o institucional. En otros términos, la reprobación debe ser analizada en un contexto multivariado para identificar sus causas y efectos. Objetivos: identificar los factores que se asocian y predicen la reprobación en alumnos de la carrera de Medicina en 2014. Métodos: estudio exploratorio, transversal, retrospectivo, comparativo. Se analizó un universo de 388 alumnos en servicio social de enero de 2014. Se formaron dos grupos de estudio: Grupo 1 (alumnos que no reprobaron materias durante la carrera) y Grupo 2 (alumnos que sí reprobaron materias durante la carrera). Se elaboró y validó un cuestionario con 58 items relacionadas con: factores sociodemográficos, educativos, de satisfacción de los alumnos y desarrollo de servicio social. De estas, fueron seleccionadas 21 items que pudieran tener relación con la reprobación. Se realizó análisis multivariado, mediante la técnica de análisis discriminante.Resultados: el análisis multivariado reportó que sólo siete de ellas fueron discriminantes significativas asociadas a la reprobación, en orden de importancia son: la edad, ser seleccionado a la residencia, ingreso familiar, sexo, repetición de años durante la primaria o secundaria, años que tardó en ingresar a la carrera y el tipo de actividad realizada durante el servicio social. Conclusiones: la predicción de que un alumno repruebe o no materias en la licenciatura de medicina se debe a la sinergia que se produce entre las siete características mencionadas, no se deben "aislar las variables" para considerarlas predictivas por sí mismas(AU)

Introduction: Academic failure is one of the main school manifestations, usually associated with factors of personal, economic, social, cultural, educational or institutional origin. In other words, Academic failure must be analyzed in a diverse and varied context to identify its causes and effects. Objectives: To identify associated factors and predict failure in students of the medical major in 2014. Methods: Exploratory, cross-sectional, retrospective, comparative study. A universe of 388 students in social service was analyzed in January 2014. Two study groups were formed: group 1 (students who did not fail any subjects during the course) and group 2 (students who failed subjects during the course). A questionnaire was elaborated and validated, containing 58 items related to: sociodemographic and educational factors, student satisfaction and social service performance. 21 of these items were chosen as they could be associated with academic failure. A multivariate analysis was performed, using the discriminant analysis technique. Results: The multivariate analysis reported that only seven were significant discriminants associated with academic failure, arranged by importance are: age, being chosen for the residence, family income, sex, retake of academic years in primary or secondary levels, years to enter the major and the type of activity carried out during the social service. Conclusions: The prediction that a student may fail or may not fail subjects in the medical major depends on the synergy between the seven characteristics that were mentioned; the variables should not be isolated to consider them predictive by themselves(AU)

Reprobación en estudiantes de Medicina de la Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México / Academic failure in medical students from the National Autonomous University of Mexico

Introducción: la reprobación es una de las principales manifestaciones de fracaso escolar, generalmente suele ser relacionada con factores de origen personal, económico, social, cultural, docente o institucional. En otros términos, la reprobación debe ser analizada en un contexto multivariado para identificar sus causas y efectos. Objetivos: identificar los factores que se asocian y predicen la reprobación en alumnos de la carrera de Medicina en 2014. Métodos: estudio exploratorio, transversal, retrospectivo, comparativo. Se analizó un universo de 388 alumnos en servicio social de enero de 2014. Se formaron dos grupos de estudio: Grupo 1 (alumnos que no reprobaron materias durante la carrera) y Grupo 2 (alumnos que sí reprobaron materias durante la carrera). Se elaboró y validó un cuestionario con 58 items relacionadas con: factores sociodemográficos, educativos, de satisfacción de los alumnos y desarrollo de servicio social. De estas, fueron seleccionadas 21 items que pudieran tener relación con la reprobación. Se realizó análisis multivariado, mediante la técnica de análisis discriminante.Resultados: el análisis multivariado reportó que sólo siete de ellas fueron discriminantes significativas asociadas a la reprobación, en orden de importancia son: la edad, ser seleccionado a la residencia, ingreso familiar, sexo, repetición de años durante la primaria o secundaria, años que tardó en ingresar a la carrera y el tipo de actividad realizada durante el servicio social. Conclusiones: la predicción de que un alumno repruebe o no materias en la licenciatura de medicina se debe a la sinergia que se produce entre las siete características mencionadas, no se deben "aislar las variables" para considerarlas predictivas por sí mismas(AU)

Introduction: Academic failure is one of the main school manifestations, usually associated with factors of personal, economic, social, cultural, educational or institutional origin. In other words, Academic failure must be analyzed in a diverse and varied context to identify its causes and effects. Objectives: To identify associated factors and predict failure in students of the medical major in 2014. Methods: Exploratory, cross-sectional, retrospective, comparative study. A universe of 388 students in social service was analyzed in January 2014. Two study groups were formed: group 1 (students who did not fail any subjects during the course) and group 2 (students who failed subjects during the course). A questionnaire was elaborated and validated, containing 58 items related to: sociodemographic and educational factors, student satisfaction and social service performance. 21 of these items were chosen as they could be associated with academic failure. A multivariate analysis was performed, using the discriminant analysis technique. Results: The multivariate analysis reported that only seven were significant discriminants associated with academic failure, arranged by importance are: age, being chosen for the residence, family income, sex, retake of academic years in primary or secondary levels, years to enter the major and the type of activity carried out during the social service. Conclusions: The prediction that a student may fail or may not fail subjects in the medical major depends on the synergy between the seven characteristics that were mentioned; the variables should not be isolated to consider them predictive by themselves(AU)

Specific entrustable professional activities for undergraduate medical internships: a method compatible with the academic curriculum.

BACKGROUND: Competency-based education has been considered the most important pedagogical trend in Medicine in the last two decades. In clinical contexts, competencies are implemented through Entrustable Professional Activities (EPAs) which are observable and measurable. The aim of this paper is to describe the methodology used in the design of educational tools to assess students´ competencies in clinical practice during their undergraduate internship (UI). In this paper, we present the construction of specific APROCs (Actividades Profesionales Confiables) in Surgery (S), Gynecology and Obstetrics (GO) and Family Medicine (FM) rotations with three levels of performance. METHODS: The study considered a mixed method exploratory type design, a qualitative phase followed by a quantitative validation exercise. In the first stage data was obtained from three rotations (FM, GO and S) through focus groups about real and expected activities of medical interns. Triangulation with other sources was made to construct benchmarks. In the second stage, narrative descriptions with the three levels were validated by professors who teach the different subjects using the Delphi technique. RESULTS: The results may be described both curricular and methodological wise. From the curricular point of view, APROCs were identified in three UI rotations within clinical contexts in Mexico City, benchmarks were developed by levels and validated by experts' consensus. In regard to methodological issues, this research contributed to the development of a strategy, following six steps, to build APROCs using mixed methods. CONCLUSIONS: Developing benchmarks provides a regular and standardized language that helps to evaluate student's performance and define educational strategies efficiently and accurately. The university academic program was aligned with APROCs in clinical contexts to assure the acquisition of competencies by students.

[Competence development in undergraduate medical schools: a model with entrusted professional activities]. / Desarrollo de competencias en el pregrado: un modelo con actividades profesionales confiables (APROC).

INTRODUCTION: Today´s relevant educational models emphasize that a great part of learning be situated and reflexive; one of those is the Entrusted Professional Activities model. The study objective was to develop a model that integrates Entrusted Professional Activities with a medical school curriculum. METHODS: From October 2012 a multidisciplinary group met to develop a model with the specialty of obstetrics and gynecology. From two published models of Entrusted Professional Activities and the curriculum of a school of medicine, blocks, units, and daily clinical practice charts were developed. The thematic content of the curriculum was integrated with the appropriate milestones for undergraduate students and the clinical practice needed to achieve it. RESULTS: We wrote a manual with 37 daily clinical practice charts for students (18 of gynecology and 19 of obstetrics) and 37 for teachers. Each chart content was the daily clinical practice, reflection activities, assessment instruments, and bibliography. CONCLUSIONS: It is feasible to combine a model of Entrusted Professional Activities with an undergraduate curriculum, which establishes a continuum with postgraduate education.

Actividades profesionales confiables (APROC): un enfoque de competencias para el perfil médico / Entrustable Professional Activities (EPA): an approach of competencies for medical curriculum

La implementación de la educación basada en competencias ha revolucionado de manera global la forma de aprender y enseñar medicina. Las competencias corresponden a las atribuciones que todo médico debe de poseer, y surgieron a partir de las Canadian Medical Education Directives for Specialists y el Accreditation Council for Graduate Medical Education (ACGME). Para lograr su adquisición, ha sido necesario implementar las actividades profesionales confiables (APROC), término acuñado por Ten Cate y Scheele, cuya finalidad ha sido vincular el concepto de competencias con la práctica. Se trata de actividades clínicas que los aprendices deben realizar para lograr dominarlas sin supervisión. El Milestone Project creado por el ACGME surgió para enriquecer las competencias, y cada especialidad debe definir las propias y decidir el nivel de desempeño que espera de sus alumnos en cada año de la especialidad. Para lograr aplicar las APROC es necesario que su diseño sea acorde con los objetivos del plan de estudios y requisitos del perfil del graduado. Diversas instituciones educativas de diferentes países han implementado este innovador modelo de enseñanza, entre los que destacan Canadá, Estados Unidos, Reino Unido, Australia, Nueva Zelanda y Países Bajos. El propósito de este artículo es difundir nuevas propuestas para la educación médica que logren vincular el perfil de competencias con la práctica clínica rutinaria, para que los facultativos logren empoderamiento de estas nuevas herramientas y las puedan aplicar de manera eficiente en la enseñanza de los estudiantes, y una de éstas son las APROC

The implementation of competency-based education has revolutionized the way of learning and teaching medicine globally. Competencies are the responsibilities that all physicians must possess; they emerged from the Canadian Medical Education Directives for Specialists (CanMEDS) and Accreditation Council for Graduate Medical Education (ACGME). To achieve the acquisition of these competencies, it has been necessary to implement Entrustable Professional Activities (EPAs), term coined by Ten Cate and Scheele, its purpose has been to link the concept of competencies with the practice. EPAs are clinical activities that learners must carry out for master them without supervision. The Milestone Project created by the ACGME was founded in order to enrich the competencies, where each specialty should define their own and decide the level of performance expected of students in each postgraduate year of the specialty. To apply the EPAs it is necessary that its design is consistent with the objectives of the curriculum and requirements of the profile of the graduate. Several educational institutions in different countries have implemented this innovative model of teaching, including: Canada, United States of America, United Kingdom, Australia, New Zealand and the Netherlands. The purpose of this article is to spread new proposals for medical education that link the competencies with the daily basis practice in medicine to allow clinicians to achieve empowerment of these new tools and can apply them efficiently to the teaching of students, being one of these tools the EPAs

[Educational model to develop trustworthy professional activities]. / Modelo educativo para desarrollar actividades profesionales confiables (MEDAPROC).

BACKGROUND: The reorganization of the national health system (SNS), enforces reflection and transformation on medical education in clinical contexts. The study presents an educational model to develop entrusted professionals activities (MEDAPROC) to train human resources in health with reliable knowledge, skills and attitudes to work in the shifting scenario of the SNS. METHODS: The paper discusses international and national documents on skills in medicine. Based on the analysis of 8 domains, 50 skills and 13 entrusted professional activities (RPA) proposed by the Association of the American Medical College (AAMC) we propose a curriculum design, with the example of the undergraduate program of Gynecology and Obstetrics, with the intention to advance to internship and residency in a continuum that marks milestones and clinical practices. RESULTS: The pedagogical design of MEDAPROC was developed within three areas: 1) proposal of the AAMC; 2) curricular content of programs in pre and postgraduate education 3) organization of the daily agenda with academic mechanisms to develop the competencies, cover program items and develop clinical practice in deliberate learning activities, as well as milestones. CONCLUSION: The MEDAPROC offers versatility, student mobility and curricular flexibility in a system planed by academic units in diverse clinical settings.

Introducción: la reorganización del Sistema Nacional de Salud (SNS), obliga a reflexionar y modificar la formación médica en los contextos clínicos. El estudio presenta la propuesta Modelo Educativo para Desarrollar Actividades Profesionales Confiables (MEDAPROC) para formar recursos humanos en salud con conocimientos, habilidades y actitudes confiables para desempeñarse en el escenario cambiante del SNS. Métodos: se examinaron los documentos internacionales y nacionales sobre competencias en medicina. Con base en el análisis de los 8 dominios, las 50 competencias y las 13 Actividades Profesionales Confiables (APROC) propuestas por la Association of the American Medical College (AAMC) se realizó un diseño curricular con el ejemplo del programa de Ginecología y Obstetricia de pregrado. Un grupo focal con 5 ginecólogos expertos, profesores de la especialidad realimentaron las competencias y los programas. Resultados: Se elaboró el diseño pedagógico del MEDAPROC con tres áreas: 1) propuesta de la AAMC; 2) contenidos curriculares de los programas en pre y posgrado, y 3) hitos y planeación de la agenda del día con dispositivos pedagógicos para desarrollar las competencias, cubrir temas del programa y desarrollar la práctica clínica en actividades deliberadas para el aprendizaje teórico/práctico. Conclusión: El MEDAPROC ofrece versatilidad, movilidad estudiantil y flexibilidad curricular en un sistema por bloques y no por sedes de adscripción.

[The dimension of the paradigm of complexity in health systems]. / La dimensión del paradigma de la complejidad en los sistemas de salud.

This article presents elements to better understand health systems from the complety paradigm, innovative perspective that offers other ways in the conception of the scientific knowledge prevalent away from linear, characterized by the arise of emerging dissociative and behaviors, based on the intra and trans-disciplinarity concepts such knowledges explain and understand in a different way what happens in the health systems with a view to efficiency and effectiveness. The complexity paradigm means another way of conceptualizing the knowledge, is different from the prevalent epistemology, is still under construction does not separate, not isolated, is not reductionist, or fixed, does not solve the problems, but gives other bases to know them and study them, is a different strategy, a perspective that has basis in the systems theory, informatics and cybernetics beyond traditional knowledge, the positive logics, the newtonian physics and symmetric mathematics, in which everything is centered and balanced, joint the "soft sciences and hard sciences", it has present the Social Determinants of Health and organizational culture. Under the complexity paradigm the health systems are identified with the following concepts: entropy, neguentropy, the thermodynamic second law, attractors, chaos theory, fractals, selfmanagement and self-organization, emerging behaviors, percolation, uncertainty, networks and robusteness; such expressions open new possibilities to improve the management and better understanding of the health systems, giving rise to consider health systems as complex adaptive systems.

[The approach of sciences of complexity in health services administration]. / El enfoque de las ciencias de la complejidad en la administración de servicios de salud.

Historically, health services administration has been managed under a Taylorist, Fayolist, humanist and bureaucratic focus approach. However, today dynamic and competitive behaviors that require others approaches in management are developing. Because of the social, scientific and technological changes that are occurring, it is necessary to abandon hierarchical and authoritarian schemes, "up and down" lines, prescriptive rules and order line up must be left behind. Health services administration is an adapted complex system that is not proportional, neither predictable in direction or magnitude. A new proposal is to focus on the sciences of complexity, where the social factors, materials, economics, human and ethics coincide with order and disorder, reason and unreason, and in which we must accept that the phenomenon that emerges creates different organizing different structures from the addition or subtraction of components. There is distance in the process of cause and direct effect. The mirage from the sciences of complexity are trans-disciplinary and we have accepted this in others branches of knowledge, such as quantum physics, non-linear mathematics and cybernetics, so we have to accept the influence of entropy, non-entropy, attractors, the theory of chaos and fractals.

Históricamente, la atención a la salud se ha administrado de acuerdo con los enfoques taylorianos, fayolistas, humanistas y burocráticos, sin embargo, en la actualidad se desarrolla en ambientes dinámicos y competitivos, que requieren otros enfoques para su administración. Dados los cambios sociales, científicos y tecnológicos, se debe dejar atrás los organigramas jerárquicos y autoritarios, las líneas up and down, las normas prescriptivas y el orden lineal. La administración de la atención a la salud es un sistema complejo adaptativo en el que las interacciones de las variables no son proporcionales ni predecibles a la dirección o magnitud de las mismas. Una propuesta reciente es abordarla desde el enfoque de las ciencias de la complejidad, donde los factores sociales, materiales, económicos, humanos y éticos coinciden en orden y desorden, razón y sin razón; y en el que se acepta que hay fenómenos que originan estructuras organizativas diferentes a la suma o a la resta de sus componentes. Hay distanciamiento del proceso causa-efecto directo. El enfoque de las ciencias de la complejidad implica transdiciplinariedad con ramas del conocimiento como la física cuántica, las matemáticas no lineales y la cibernética; así como aceptar el influjo de la entropía, la neguentropía, los atractores, las teorías del caos y las fractales.

Permanencia del conocimiento adquirido en los dos primeros años de la Licenciatura de Médico Cirujano. ¿Persiste al evaluarlo en el cuarto año? / Retention of knowledge acquired in the first two years of Medical School. Does it persist when tested it in the fourth year students?

Introducción. Los alumnos generalmente profundizan en el conocimiento de acuerdo al tipo de preguntas con que son evaluados: si evalúan memoria se favorece un aprendizaje mecánico y repetitivo que permanece poco tiempo en la memoria; si son de comprensión o aplicación favorecerán aprendizajes significativos. Materiales y métodos. Estudio analítico, observacional transversal. Por jueces se seleccionaron preguntas obtenidas de exámenes de anatomía, psicología, fisiología y cirugía de los tres niveles de conocimiento. El mismo examen se aplicó al azar a 13 grupos de segundo año y a 13 grupos de cuarto. La calificación y el análisis se realizaron de manera electrónica. Se aplicó la U de Mann-Whitney para identificar diferencias y percentiles con rango intercuartílico para la dispersión. Resultados. Se contestaron 310 exámenes de segundo año y 247 de cuarto. La fiabilidad del examen fue de 0,9009 y 0,9102, respectivamente. Se identificaron diferencias significativas (p = 0,000) en el examen global y en las respuestas de cirugía y psicología, considerando aciertos y nivel de conocimiento (memoria y comprensión). No se encontraron diferencias en anatomía (p = 0,527) y fisiología (p = 0,203). La mediana de aciertos fue de 39 y 43, respectivamente. La dispersión de reactivos en el análisis global y por asignatura mantuvo un rango intercuartílico de 3-4. Conclusiones. Al ser evaluado, el alumno con conocimientos memorísticos pierde interés al no encontrar la aplicación y la integración del conocimiento básicos en la clínica (AU)

Introduction. Students generally go deep into the knowledge according to the type of questions they are evaluated with, if they only will support mechanical and repetitive learning that remains just a short time in the memory, if they understand and apply their learning then these supports significant learning. Materials and methods. Analytical observational study by the method of judges there were selected 88 questions of the three levels of knowledge from tests of Anatomy, Psychology, Physiology and Surgery. The same test was randomized and applied to 13 groups of second and fourth grade. The evaluation and the analysis were performed with an electronic system. The U of Mann-Whitney was applied to identify differences and percentiles with inter-quartiles rank for the dispersion. Results. 310 students of second grade and 247 of fourth grade were answered and analyses. The reliability of the test was of 0.9009 and 0.9102, respectively. Significant differences were identified (p = 0.000) in the global examination and the answers of Surgery and Psychology, considering right answers and level of knowledge and Psychology. Considering right answers and level of knowledge (memory and understanding). There were no differences in Anatomy (p = 0.527) and Physiology (p = 0.203). There median of right answers was 39 and 43, respectively. The dispersion of items in the global analysis and by subject maintained an inter-quartiles rank between 3 and 4. Conclusions. It is important to include as many items of high cognitive levels in assessments to facilitate meaningful learning (AU)

[Teaching evaluation at Medical School, UNAM]. / La evaluación de la enseñanza en la Facultad de Medicina de la UNAM.

The purpose of this article is to offer a synthesis of what has been done in the Teaching Evaluation Program at the Medical School of the Autonomous National University of Mexico (UNAM). The Program involves three questionnaires of the students' opinion that evaluate professors of the basic and sociomedical areas, microbiology and parasitology laboratory and surgery. Between 1994 and 2003, 134,811 questionnaires were answered to evaluate the teaching performance of 6262 professors of pregraduate students. Although the evaluation of teaching through a single way is insufficient, the results obtained allow us to affirm that the Medical School at UNAM has a good professor staff, as well as they are useful for the design of programs dedicated to the acknowledgment of excellence and the needs for teaching education.

[Comparative study of the application of a diagnostic test in postgraduate education, using 2 formats: computerized and printed]. / Estudio comparativo de la aplicación de un examen diagnóstico en posgrado, utilizando dos formatos: por computadora e impreso.

A diagnostic test was applied at the National Autonomous University of Mexico School of Medicine using a two-part format with 42 clinical cases and 210 multiple-choice items. Residents were randomized into two groups: group A (printed test) and group B (computerized test). Academic performance was measured by determination of media, standard deviation, and correct-answer score; the exam was measured by reliability, difficulty index, and discrimination index and question/item assessment were calculated for item analysis. Residents answered a survey questionnaire and time taken to answer was controlled. Results showed that the printed test had higher achievement; there was better reliability for computerized format, and resident opinion was more favorable toward computer use. The two parts of the test were analyzed and results were produced for the first part of the test; in part two, results were very similar. We conclude that lack of experience in computer use could be a determining factor in our results.

[Evaluation of the clinical diagnostic reasoning. Use of dynamic attractors as an alternative]. / Evaluación del razonamiento clínico diagnóstico. Uso de atractores dinámicos como alternativa.

The purpose of this study was to apply diagnostic clinical reasoning, based upon cognitive teaching, to help the student develop their own mental structure of an ailment or disease. Such a structure is built as mathematical chaotic deterministic type that can be evaluated through identification of dynamic attractors. To achieve our purpose, clinical diagnostic reasoning skills of two groups of students was compared against those of an expert through revision of 17 clinical cases. Such revision, selection of relevant data, allows for construction of conceptual maps in which several dynamic attractors can be identified, based on the largest number of connections that stem from some concepts. In the majority of cases, statistical analysis showed similarity among types of connections established by the expert; several similar dynamic attractors could be identified, leading us to conclude that cognitive-based teaching of diagnostic clinical reasoning is useful in developing this type of skill, and that it can be evaluated through identification of dynamic attractors.

Evaluación del razonamiento clínico diagnóstico. Uso de atractores dinámicos como alternativa / Evaluation of the clinical diagnostic reasoning. Use of dynamic attractors as an alternative

The purpose of this study was to apply diagnostic clinical reasoning, based upon cognitive teaching, to help the student develop their own mental structure of an ailment or disease. Such a structure is built as mathematical chaotic deterministic type that can be evaluated through identification of dynamic attractors. To achieve our purpose, clinical diagnostic reasoning skills of two groups of students was compared against those of an expert through revision of 17 clinical cases. Such revision, selection of relevant data, allows for construction of conceptual maps in which several dynamic attractors can be identified, based on the largest number of connections that stem from some concepts. In the majority of cases, statistical analysis showed similarity among types of connections established by the expert; several similar dynamic attractors could be identified, leading us to conclude that cognitive-based teaching of diagnostic clinical reasoning is useful in developing this type of skill, and that it can be evaluated through identification of dynamic attractors.

Fase teórica del examen profesional: validación de los casos clínicos / Validation of clinical cases in the theory phase of the graduate exam

El objetivo fue validar el contenido de los casos clínicos que conforman la fase teórica del examen profesional de la carrera de médico cirujano, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México. El estudio constó de tres etapas en las cuales se validaron 197 casos clínicos. Se trató de una investigación obser-vacional y descriptiva con la participación de médicos familiares y especialistas de las áreas troncales de la medicina, quienes dieron su opinión sobre el contenido de los casos clínicos mediante un instrumento de calificación constituido por tres bloques: opinión del evaluador, respuesta de los evaluadores a los casos clínicos y recomendaciones para su corrección. Los resultados obtenidos muestran que el porcentaje de la calificación otorgada a los casos clínicos por médicos familiares fue de 69 a 78 por ciento del valor esperado, y el de los médicos especialistas de áreas troncales de 60 a 91 por ciento. La calificación promedio obtenida por los médicos familiares como respuesta a los casos clínicos fue de 57.5 por ciento, y la de los otros especialistas de 72 por ciento. Las recomendaciones para modificación de los casos clínicos representan de 5 a 46 por ciento por parte de los médicos familiares, y de 26.6 a 30 por ciento por los especialistas de áreas troncales. En conclusión se obtuvo una opinión útil para corregir los casos clínicos elaborados para la fase teórica del examen profesional.