A comprehensive review of water quality indices (WQIs): history, models, attempts and perspectives.

Water quality index (WQI) is one of the most used tools to describe water quality. It is based on physical, chemical, and biological factors that are combined into a single value that ranges from 0 to 100 and involves 4 processes: (1) parameter selection, (2) transformation of the raw data into common scale, (3) providing weights and (4) aggregation of sub-index values. The background of WQI is presented in this review study. the stages of development, the progression of the field of study, the various WQIs, the benefits and drawbacks of each approach, and the most recent attempts at WQI studies. In order to grow and elaborate the index in several ways, WQIs should be linked to scientific breakthroughs (example: ecologically). Consequently, a sophisticated WQI that takes into account statistical methods, interactions between parameters, and scientific and technological improvement should be created in order to be used in future investigations.

Antimicrobial Activity and Synergy Investigation of Hypericum scabrum Essential Oil with Antifungal Drugs.

The chemical composition of Lebanese Hypericum scabrum essential oil (EO) was analyzed by gas chromatography (GC) and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GG-MS). Its antimicrobial activity was evaluated by determining its minimal inhibitory concentrations (MICs) against a Gram-negative and a Gram-positive bacterium, one yeast, and five dermatophytes. H. scabrum EO was most active on filamentous fungi (MIC values of 32-64 µg/mL). Synergy within the oil was investigated by testing each of the following major components on Trichophyton rubrum: α-pinene, limonene, myrcene, ß-pinene and nonane, as well as a reconstructed EO. The antifungal activity of the natural oil could not be reached, meaning that its activity might be due, in part, to minor constituent(s). The interactions between H. scabrum EO and commercially available antifungals were assessed by the checkerboard test. A synergistic effect was revealed in the combination of the EO with amphotericin B.

Bioaccessibility of lead in Dittrichia viscosa plants and risk assessment of human exposure around a fertilizer industry in Lebanon.

Total and bioaccessible lead (Pb) concentrations in Dittrichia viscosa and soil samples were considered for estimating the potential health risk, related to both plant intake and accidental soil ingestion by adult and child consumers, near a Lebanese fertilizer plant. A total of 27 plant samples, from 9 uncultivated sites situated around the plant, were analyzed in order to assess the total and bioaccessible Pb content. Physiologically based extraction test (PBET) was used to estimate oral bioaccessibility of Pb in edible plant parts. Washed and unwashed leaves were compared in order to show the importance of good consumer practice on Pb intake. Extracted Pb in the intestinal medium accounted for 24 up to 87% of Pb extracted in the gastric medium. The total hazard quotient (HQtot) and the total bioaccessible hazard quotient (BHQ), related to both plants' intake and soil ingestion, for two maximalist child and adult scenarios, were calculated in order to estimate human health risk assessment. HQtot estimations considering the total concentration of Pb in soil and plant suggest that this metal is a contributor in elevating health risks problems on local plants' consumers, especially children inhabitants. However, the integration of bioaccessible concentrations of Pb in risk estimations reduces remarkably the potential risk.

Bioaccessibility and radioisotopes of lead in soils around a fertilizer industry in Lebanon.

The use of phosphate ore by fertilizer industries is considered a major source of soil contamination by trace metals and radionuclides. Despite its low mobility and bioavailability, lead (Pb) is among soil contaminants that pose a serious risk to human health. This study evaluates the potential impact of a fertilizer factory in North Lebanon on the total content of Pb and the activity concentration of its radioisotopes in residential, non-agricultural lands around the industry, as well as its mobility and bioaccessibility in soil samples collected at different depths. Chemical extractions by EDTA and in vitro physiologically based extraction test were used to estimate, respectively, the available and bioaccessible fractions of Pb in soils. Radioisotopes 214Pb, 212Pb and 210Pb have been analyzed by gamma spectrometry. Different physicochemical soil parameters, such as pH, carbonate content, electrical conductivity, cation exchange capacity, clay, total nitrogen and redox potential, were studied. The pseudo-total Pb varied between 12.8 and 68.5 mg kg-1, while the extractable fractions were more variable, between 12 and 72% of total Pb concentration for the EDTA extracted fraction and up to 28.5% for the bioaccessible fractions. The processing of the data shows the decreases with depth in most sites of the total and available Pb and of the activity concentration of 210Pb and their positive correlations with total nitrogen. These variations and relationships with the location of studied sites show the influence of emissions from the factory or the transport of ore and by-products. The correlations between available and bioaccessible Pb on one hand, between available Pb and 210Pb on another hand, raise the question of health risk assessments taking into account the bioaccessibility of Pb and its radioisotopes.

Chemical Variability of the Essential Oil of Origanum ehrenbergii Boiss. from Lebanon, Assessed by Independent Component Analysis (ICA) and Common Component and Specific Weight Analysis (CCSWA).

Origanum ehrenbergii Boiss., an endemic plant to Lebanon, is widely acknowledged in Lebanese traditional medicine. The aim of the present study was to evaluate the influence of the drying method, region, and time of harvest on yield and chemical composition of O. ehrenbergii essential oils (EOs). Plants were harvested monthly throughout 2013 and 2014, from two different regions, Aabadiye and Qartaba, then dried using two drying methods: lyophilization and shade-drying at 4 °C. EO was extracted by hydrodistillation and analyzed by GC/MS. GC-MS data, combined with independent component analysis (ICA) and common component and specific weight analysis (CCSWA), showed that drying techniques, region of harvest, and soil composition have no effect on the chemical composition of O. ehrenbergii EOs. Of the factors analyzed, only harvesting time affected the EO composition of this species. High and stable amounts of carvacrol, associated with reliable antimicrobial activities, were detected in material harvested between March and October. EOs obtained from plants harvested in Aabadiye in January and February showed high amounts of thymoquinone, related to anti-inflammatory and cytotoxic effects. The use of ICA and CCSWA was proven to be efficient, and allowed the development of a discriminant model for the classification of O. ehrenbergii chemotype and the determination of the best harvesting time.

Hirtellina lobelii DC. essential oil, its constituents, its combination with antimicrobial drugs and its mode of action.

With the goal of unravelling antimicrobial agents and mixtures inspired by plant defences, we investigated the antibacterial and antifungal efficacy of Hirtellina lobelii DC. essential oil (EO), both alone and in combination with antimicrobial drugs. Hirtellina lobelii DC. EO was analysed by GC, GC-MS and partial fractionation/NMR. It was essentially composed of oxygenated sesquiterpenes (75.2%), with α-bisabolol (34.5%), fokienol (12.0%) and T-muurolol (6.8%) serving as the main components. Microbial susceptibility was determined by the broth microdilution method and was expressed as minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) and minimum bactericidal or fungicidal concentration (MBC or MFC). This EO was found to possess remarkable bactericidal (MBC/MIC = 2) and fungicidal (MFC/MIC = 1-4) potential, particularly against the Gram (+) bacteria Staphylococcus aureus, including its methicillin-resistant forms, the yeast Cryptococcus neoformans and dermatophytes from the genus Trichophyton (MICs 8-128 µg/ml). The examination of the combined effects of the EO with antimicrobial drugs revealed synergisms of the EO with vancomycin against S. aureus and of the EO with fluconazole and griseofulvin against dermatophytic fungi (FICI 0.2-0.5). The effect of H. lobelii EO on the morphologies of fungal hyphae and bacteria, as determined by scanning electronic microscopy (SEM), showed fungal hyphae swelling and bulging. These results suggest that H. lobelii EO and its major constituent, α-bisabolol, have remarkable antimicrobial potential. Combination therapies of this EO with antifungal drugs could offer a promising alternative for treatment of human mycoses caused by filamentous dermatophytic fungi.

Synthesis of novel mono and bis nitric oxide donors with high cytocompatibility and release activity.

Four compounds bearing amidoxime functions were synthetized: (1) 2a,b bearing an aromatic amidoxime function, (2) 2c bearing an aliphatic amidoxime function, and (3) 2d bearing aromatic and aliphatic amidoximes functions. The ability of these compounds to release NO was evaluated in vitro using the oxidative metabolism of cytochrome P450 from rat liver microsomes. Results obtained demonstrate that all amidoximes were able to release NO with a highest amount of NO produced by the 2a aromatic amidoxime. Moreover, all amidoximes exhibit cytocompatibility with human aorta smooth muscle cells. Using intracellular S-nitrosothiol formation as a marker of NO bioavailability, compounds 2a-c were demonstrated to deliver a higher amount of NO in the intracellular environment than the reference. Considering that the concentration of the bis-amidoxime 2d was two times lower that than of 2a and 2b, we can assume that 2d is the most potent molecule among the tested compounds for NO release.

Characterization of spatial and temporal patterns in surface water quality: a case study of four major Lebanese rivers.

In this work, four major Lebanese rivers were investigated, the Damour, Ibrahim, Kadisha, and Orontes, which are located in South, Central, and North Lebanon and Bekaa Valley, respectively. Five sampling sites were considered from upstream to downstream, and 12 sampling campaigns over four seasons were conducted during 2010-2011. Thirty-seven physicochemical parameters and five microbial tests were evaluated. A principal component analysis (PCA) was used for data evaluation. The first PCA, applied to the matrix-containing data that was acquired on all four rivers, showed that each river was distinct in terms of trophic state and pollution sources. The Ibrahim River was more likely to be polluted with industrial and human discharges, while the Kadisha River was severely polluted with anthropogenic human wastes. The Orontes and Damour rivers seemed to have the lowest rates of water pollution, especially the Orontes, which had the best water quality. PCA was also performed on individual data matrices for each river. In all cases, the results showed that the springs of each river have good water quality and are free from severe contamination. The other monitoring sites on each river were likely exposed to human activities and showed important spatial evolution. Through this work, a spatiotemporal fingerprint was obtained for each studied river, defining a "water mass reference" for each one. This model could be used as a monitoring tool for subsequent water quality surveys to highlight any temporal evolution of water quality. Graphical abstract ᅟ.

Capparis spinosa L. in A Systematic Review: A Xerophilous Species of Multi Values and Promising Potentialities for Agrosystems under the Threat of Global Warming.

Caper (Capparis spinosa L.) is a xerophytic shrub with a remarkable adaptability to harsh environments. This plant species is of great interest for its medicinal/pharmacological properties and its culinary uses. Its phytochemical importance relies on many bioactive components present in different organs and its cultivation can be of considerable economic value. Moreover, taxonomic identification of C. spinosa L. has been difficult due to its wide heterogeneity, and many authors fell into confusion due to the scarcity of genetic studies. The present review summarizes information concerning C. spinosa L. including agronomic performance, botanical description, taxonomical approaches, traditional pharmacological uses, phytochemical evaluation and genetic studies. This knowledge represents an important tool for further research studies and agronomic development on this indigenous species with respect to the emerging climatic change in the Eastern Mediterranean countries. Indeed, this world region is particularly under the threat of global warming and it appears necessary to rethink agricultural systems to adapt them to current and futures challenging environmental conditions. Capparis spinosa L. could be a part of this approach. So, this review presents a state of the art considering caper as a potential interesting crop under arid or semi-arid regions (such as Eastern Mediterranean countries) within the climate change context. The aim is to raise awareness in the scientific community (geneticists, physiologists, ecophysiologists, agronomists, …) about the caper strengths and interest to the development of this shrub as a crop.

Headspace solid-phase microextraction for wine volatile analysis.

The most commonly used technique to prepare samples for the analysis of wine volatile is the headspace solid-phase microextraction (HS-SPME). This method has gained popularity in last few years, as it is a unique solventless preparation technique. In this paper, a summary of recently published studies using HS-SPME for the analysis of wine aromas, with special emphasis on the method developed, has been compiled. Several papers are discussed in detail, mainly with respect to the SPME conditions used. A brief summary of the reviews related to HS-SPME analysis is given and discussed. Several parameters affecting the HS-SPME, such as the salt concentration and the agitation conditions, are used in the same way as used in several papers. The HS-SPME extraction proved to be sufficiently sensitive to satisfy legislative requirements related to low detection and quantification limits as well as method accuracy and precision requirements. However, in order to achieve the best performance and precision, the protocol needs to be optimized for each case. The effect of different parameters must be well characterized to ensure correct extraction and desorption to ensure the transfer of extracted compounds into the analytical system. The operating parameters, such as time, temperature, and agitation, must then be kept constant for all the samples.

Essential Oils Composition and Antimicrobial Activity of Six Conifers Harvested in Lebanon.

The chemical composition and antimicrobial activity of the essential oils (EOs) of six conifers harvested in Lebanon, Abies cilicica, Cupressus sempervirens, Juniperus excelsa, Juniperus oxycedrus, Cedrus libani and Cupressus macrocarpa gold crest, were investigated. The EOs were obtained by hydrodistillation using a Clevenger-type apparatus and characterized by GC and GC/MS analyses. A principal components analysis based on Pearson correlation between essential oils chemical analyses was also conducted. The minimum inhibitory concentrations (MICs) of these essentials oils were determined against a range of bacteria and fungi responsible for cutaneous infections in human, using the broth microdilution technique. The EOs showed the most interesting bioactivity on the dermatophytes species (MIC values 32 - 64 µg/ml). Each of the major compounds of C. macrocarpa as well as an artificial reconstructed EO were tested on Trichophyton rubrum showing a contribution of the minor components to the overall activity.

Chemical Composition and Antimicrobial Activity of Satureja, Thymus, and Thymbra Species Grown in Lebanon.

The essential oils were extracted by hydrodistillation from Satureja cuneifolia, Satureja thymbra, Coridothymus capitatus, Thymus syriacus, and Thymbra spicata growing wild in Lebanon. Their phytochemical analysis performed by GC/MS showed that the aforementioned species are characterized either by carvacrol (60.9%) or thymol (54.3%) or by a more or less equal amounts of these two phenols. Assessment of their in vitro antimicrobial activity against Candida albicans and six pathogenic bacteria using the broth dilution method revealed that the tested oils have a broad activity spectrum with minimum inhibitory concentration ranging from 0.1 to 0.8 mg/ml. Among the tested species, S. thymbra EO showed the highest antimicrobial potential whereas T. syriacus showed the lowest inhibitory activity. These results give scientific evidence for the use of those species in the Lebanese folk medicine and lend support to implement them as natural alternatives for synthetic antimicrobials.

Chemometric Tools to Highlight the Variability of the Chemical Composition and Yield of Lebanese Origanum syriacum L. Essential Oil.

This study deals with the variation in the yield and composition of Lebanese Origanum syriacum L. essential oil (EO) according to harvesting time, drying methods used, and geographical location. Plant material was harvested twice a month all over 2013 and 2014 from Qartaba and Achkout located at high altitude and from Byblos at low altitude. EOs of the aerial parts were obtained by hydrodistillation. The highest yields were obtained at full flowering stage and slightly reduced after flowering. The GC/MS analysis revealed the presence of 50 components representing 90.49 - 99.82%, 88.79 - 100%, and 95.28 - 100% of the total oil extracted from plants harvested from Qartaba, Achkout, and Byblos, respectively. The major components in the oils were: carvacrol (2.1 - 79.8%), thymol (0.3 - 83.7%), p-cymene (2.8 - 43.8%), thymoquinone (0.4 - 27.7%), γ-terpinene (0.4 - 10.0%), octan-3-ol (0.3 - 4.9%), caryophyllene oxide (0.2 - 4.7%), oct-1-en-3-ol (0.3 - 3.7%), ß-caryophyllene (0.7 - 3.2%), cis-sabinene hydrate (0.1 - 2.8%), terpinen-4-ol (0.1 - 2.8%), and α-terpinene (0.2 - 2.2%). Independent components analysis (ICA) revealed that two groups were discriminated, reflecting compositional differences in the EOs profiles of the Lebanese oregano samples: O. syriacum grown in Qartaba and Achkout belongs to carvacrol chemotype, while O. syriacum grown in Byblos belongs to thymol chemotype. The flowering phase was the most productive period in terms of yield, bringing marked changes in the EO composition by increasing the amounts of carvacrol or thymol, and decreasing those of thymoquinone and p-cymene.

Chemical Diversity and Antimicrobial Activity of Salvia multicaulis Vahl Essential Oils.

The chemical compositions and antimicrobial activities of the essential oils (EOs) of aerial parts of Salvia multicaulis Vahl, collected during the same week from two different Lebanese regions, were investigated. The EOs were obtained by hydrodistillation using a Clevenger-type apparatus and characterized by GC and GC/MS analyses. The minimum inhibitory concentrations of these EOs were determined against one Gram-negative and two Gram-positive bacteria, one yeast, and five dermatophytes using the broth microdilution technique. One EO was notably active against Staphylococcus aureus, methicillin-resistant S. aureus, and all of the Trichophyton species tested. Nerolidol was found to be the major compound in the active oil; nerolidol was also absent from the inactive oil. This study demonstrated that nerolidol shows antimicrobial activity and therefore significantly contributes to the antimicrobial potential of the oil. The chemical diversity of worldwide S. multicaulis EOs was analyzed, revealing that the EOs of this study belong to two different chemotypes found in the literature. The nerolidol chemotype appears to be restricted to Lebanon, and it can be used as antimicrobial agent against external bacterial and fungal infections.

Chemical Composition and Antimicrobial Activity of Origanum libanoticum, Origanum ehrenbergii, and Origanum syriacum Growing Wild in Lebanon.

The essential oils (EOs) of the aerial parts of Origanum libanoticum and Origanum ehrenbergii, endemic to Lebanon, and Origanum syriacum, endemic to the Levantine, were obtained by distillation with a Clevenger apparatus. GC and GC/MS allowed identification of 96.4%, 93.5%, and 95.2% of their constituents, respectively. Carvacrol was the major component of both O. syriacum EO (79%) and O. ehrenbergii EO (60.8%). This compound was absent in O. libanoticum EO and the major compounds were ß-caryophyllene (26.8%), caryophyllene oxide (22.6%), and germacrene D (17.2%). The assessment of their antimicrobial activity against Candida albicans and six pathogenic bacteria revealed that O. libanoticum EO was inactive, while O. syriacum and O. ehrenbergii showed moderate antimicrobial activity with minimal inhibitory concentrations varying from 400 to 1200 µg/ml. These results support the traditional use of these last two species in traditional herbal preparations in Lebanon.

Report on the Medicinal Use of Eleven Lamiaceae Species in Lebanon and Rationalization of Their Antimicrobial Potential by Examination of the Chemical Composition and Antimicrobial Activity of Their Essential Oils.

Many Lamiaceae species are consumed in the Lebanese cuisine as food or condiment and are largely used in the traditional medicine of Lebanon to treat various diseases, including microbial infections. In this article we report the traditional medicinal uses of eleven Lamiaceae species: Coridothymus capitatus L., Lavandula stoechas L., Lavandula angustifolia Mill., Mentha spicata L. subsp. condensata, Origanum syriacum L., Rosmarinus officinalis, Salvia fruticosa Miller., Satureja cuneifolia Ten., Satureja thymbra L., Thymbra spicata L., and Vitex agnus-castus L. and study the chemical composition and antimicrobial activity of their essential oils (EOs). Our survey showed that Lamiaceae species are mainly used against gastrointestinal disorders and microbial infections. Chemical analysis of the EOs obtained from these plants allowed us to identify seventy-five compounds describing more than 90% of the relative composition of each EO. Essential oils with high amounts of thymol and carvacrol possessed the strongest antimicrobial activity. As expected, these two compounds demonstrated an interesting antifungal efficacy against the filamentous fungus T. rubrum. Our results confirmed that some of the Lamiaceae species used in Lebanon ethnopharmacological practices as antimicrobial agents do possess antibacterial and antifungal potential consistent with their use in alternative or complementary medicine.

Binding characteristics of molecularly imprinted polymers based on fungicides in hydroalcoholic media.

An iprodione-imprinted polymer was prepared by copolymerization of methacrylamide and ethylene glycol dimethacrylate using a noncovalent imprinting approach. Methacrylamide was chosen using molecular dynamics simulations. To concentrate iprodione from hydro-alcoholic solutions, batch sorption of iprodione on the imprinted polymer were conducted. The equilibrium time for iprodione sorption is 20 min, and the corresponding kinetic mechanism follows the pseudo-second order indicating a strong interaction between iprodione and the imprinted polymer. Langmuir, Freundlich, and Dubinin-Radushkevich models were used to fit the isotherm of iprodione sorption. The imprinted polymer was found to be more efficient than the nonimprinted polymer for the uptake of iprodione, as revealed by its higher adsorption energy, affinity, and capacity. Finally, a selectivity study was conducted on the imprinted and the nonimprinted polymers to sorb three fungicides. It shows that the imprinted polymer could be used as a preconcentration phase in a multiresidue analysis of fungicides in hydroalcoholic medium.

Chemical composition and antimicrobial activity of the essential oil of Ruta chalepensis L. growing wild in Lebanon.

The essential oils (EOs) isolated from the fresh aerial parts of Ruta chalepensis L. collected in North Lebanon were obtained by solvent-free microwave extraction (Milestone®), yielding 0.12% EO from both the leaves and a mixture of stems and leaves. The EOs were characterized by GC/MS analysis, and 27 components were identified, which were primarily ketones (88.0-93.2%). The main components were nonan-2-one and undecan-2-one. The antimicrobial activity of the EOs against a Gram-positive and a Gram-negative bacterium, a yeast, and a dermatophyte was evaluated using the broth-microdilution technique and expressed as minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC). The EOs revealed moderate in vitro antifungal activity against Trichophyton rubrum and Candida albicans.

Chemical composition and antimicrobial activity of the essential oil of Juniperus excelsa M.Bieb. growing wild in Lebanon.

The essential oils (EOs) isolated from the leaves and twigs of Juniperus excelsa M.Bieb. growing wild in Lebanon were characterized, and their antimicrobial activity and antiradical capacity were evaluated. The EOs were obtained by hydrodistillation using a Clevenger-type apparatus and characterized by GC and GC/MS analyses. The antimicrobial activity was evaluated by determining minimal inhibitory concentrations (MICs) against a Gram-positive and a Gram-negative bacterium, a yeast, and a dermatophyte with the broth microdilution technique. A total of 28 constituents was identified and accounted for 90.1 and 95.6% of the twig and leaf EO composition, respectively. Both EOs were essentially composed of monoterpene hydrocarbons (46.7 and 59.6% for twig and leaf EOs, resp.) and sesquiterpenes (39.4 and 32.1%, resp.). The main components were α-pinene, α-cedrol, and δ-car-3-ene. The J. excelsa EOs did not show any antiradical potential, but revealed interesting in vitro antimicrobial activities against Staphylococcus aureus and Trichophyton rubrum (MICs of 64 and 128 µg/ml, resp.). The three major compounds were tested separately and in combination according to their respective amounts in the oil. δ-Car-3-ene was the most active component and is undoubtedly one of the constituents driving the antifungal activity of J. excelsa essential oil, even though synergies are probably involved.

Effects of fertilizer industry emissions on local soil contamination: a case study of a phosphate plant on the east Mediterranean coast.

Fugitive dust emission, transport and deposition from phosphate fertilizer industries may pose an environmental hazard to the surrounding environment, particularly to soil. This study is to evaluate such hazard by investigating the fate of airborne pollutants, their transfer from atmosphere to soil surface, and their contamination potential. Concentrations of elements were measured in soil samples. Elemental analyses were carried out using ICP-AES and ICP-MS. Analysis of speciation of trace elements, using a sequential extraction method, was performed on the plant's raw material (apatite), product and waste (phosphate fertilizer and phosphogypsum). A model estimating local atmospheric dry deposition was formulated. Statistical analyses were performed on sample data. Measured phosphorus accumulated considerably to the north-east of the plant, mainly due to the prevailing wind and associated dry deposition. Results exhibited considerably above-threshold enrichments in potentially toxic, bio-available trace elements (Cd, Zn) (2.5-6.9, 295-506 mg kg(-1)) and radionuclide (U, 20-98.69 mg kg(-1)) within a major deposition area. Speciation results revealed Zn and Cd occurring predominantly in mobile phases within the pollution source materials. Dry deposition calculation showed extensive input fluxes of Sr, Zn, Cr, U, Ni and Cd. Significant correlation was established between measured trace elements concentrations and their calculated deposition fluxes. Phosphorus species were the principal carriers of trace elements in soils. The phosphate industry poses a serious soil pollution hazard, with deposited contaminants being potentially hazardous to plants and groundwater. This study serves as a basis to assess the phosphate industry's risk impact on soil, while it introduces combined analytical methodologies for such assessment.