Availability of primary care providers and pharmacists in the United States.

OBJECTIVE: To determine the rural distribution of primary care providers (primary care physicians, physician assistants, nurse practitioners, and nurse midwives) and pharmacists. DESIGN: Five-digit ZIP code mapping to study the availability of primary care providers and pharmacists, alone and in combinations, in rural areas and ZIP code-based health professional shortage areas (HPSAs). National averages for annual physician visits for hypertension, asthma, and diabetes were used to estimate the sufficiency of the rural physician supply. SETTING: Rural areas of the United States. RESULTS: In rural areas, all providers were present in lower densities than national averages, particularly in HPSAs. The primary care physician supply was insufficient to meet national averages for office visits for hypertension, asthma, and diabetes. Among available providers, the most prevalent co-presence was primary care physician with pharmacist. HPSAs showed very low physician density (1 per 22,122), and the most prevalent providers were pharmacists. States varied widely in provider density. CONCLUSION: Despite longstanding efforts and the expansion of managed care, primary care providers remain in short supply in rural areas, especially ZIP code-based HPSAs. Making the best use of available providers should be encouraged. The continued shortfall of primary care providers in rural areas, particularly HPSAs, makes it logical to use other available providers and combinations to increase health care access. Pharmacists could increase care for patients with conditions treated with medications. Other available providers, based on skills and work site, could also offset shortages.

Pharmaceutical services in the United States Public Health Service.

The status of pharmaceutical services in the United States Public Health Service (PHS) is described. The PHS has been the principal health agency of the United States for nearly 200 years, directing its resources to meeting the nation's changing health needs. Pharmacists are assigned to all eight operating divisions of the PHS (a major component of the Department of Health and Human Services), as well as other federal agencies and programs. Pharmacists assigned to the Indian Health Service, the National Institutes of Health, the United States Coast Guard, the Immigration and Naturalization Service, the Federal Bureau of Prisons, and Saint Elizabeths Hospital provide pharmaceutical services to a broad range of patients and settings. Some PHS pharmacists are involved in bringing new drugs to market in the Food and Drug Administration, participating in research protocols at the National Institutes of Health, and helping the underserved populations through the programs of the Health Resources and Services Administration. Still other PHS pharmacists provide leadership and program management at the Agency for Health Care Policy and Research, the Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, and the Health Care Financing Administration. Pharmacists in the PHS work in a broad array of settings, in many cases providing care for the underserved.

Models for the supply of pharmacists.

The BHPr (formerly Bureau of Health Professions) Supply Model for pharmacists is presented and analyzed. Recommendations are made for improvement of the supply model. Included are considerations of additional variables and improvement of tables of separation rates to more accurately reflect working patterns of male and female pharmacists. The supply model shares many features of supply models for other health professions such as nursing and medicine. The variables suggested for improvement of supply determinations parallel supply measures of other health professions also. The adoption of suggestions for improvement of the pharmacy supply model to other health professions' supply models is suggested.