Task difficulty and physiological measures of mental workload in air traffic control: a scoping review.

This study provides a systematic synthesis of empirical research on mental workload (MWL) in air traffic control (ATC). MWL is a key concept in research on innovative technologies, because the assessment of MWL is crucial to the evaluation of such technologies. Our specific focus was on physiological measures of MWL. The used search strategy identified 39 peer-reviewed publications that analysed ATC tasks, examined different levels of difficulty of the ATC task, and considered at least one physiological measure of MWL. Positive relations between measures of MWL and task difficulty were observed most frequently, indicating that the measures indeed allowed the assessment of MWL. The most commonly used physiological measures were brain measures (EEG and fNIR) and heart rate measures. The review revealed a need for more precise descriptions of crucial experimental parameters in order to permit a transition of the field towards more interactive and dynamic types of analysis. Practitioner summary: Research on innovative technology in air traffic control (ATC) depends on assessments of mental workload (MWL). We reviewed empirical research on MWL in ATC. Brain and heart measures often allow assessments of MWL. Better descriptions of experiments are needed to allow comparisons among studies and more dynamic and interactive analyses.

Attentional coordination in demonstrator-observer dyads facilitates learning and predicts performance in a novel manual task.

Observational learning is a form of social learning in which a demonstrator performs a target task in the company of an observer, who may as a consequence learn something about it. In this study, we approach social learning in terms of the dynamics of coordination rather than the more common perspective of transmission of information. We hypothesised that observers must continuously adjust their visual attention relative to the demonstrator's time-evolving behaviour to benefit from it. We eye-tracked observers repeatedly watching videos showing a demonstrator solving one of three manipulative puzzles before attempting at the task. The presence of the demonstrator's face and the availability of his verbal instruction in the videos were manipulated. We then used recurrence quantification analysis to measure the dynamics of coordination between the overt attention of the observers and the demonstrator's manipulative actions. Bayesian hierarchical logistic regression was applied to examine (1) whether the observers' performance was predicted by such indexes of coordination, (2) how performance changed as they accumulated experience, and (3) if the availability of speech and intentional gaze of the demonstrator mediated it. Results showed that learners better able to coordinate their eye movements with the manipulative actions of the demonstrator had an increasingly higher probability of success in solving the task. The availability of speech was beneficial to learning, whereas the presence of the demonstrator's face was not. We argue that focusing on the dynamics of coordination between individuals may greatly improve understanding of the cognitive processes underlying social learning.

Primate Brain Anatomy: New Volumetric MRI Measurements for Neuroanatomical Studies.

Since the publication of the primate brain volumetric dataset of Stephan and colleagues in the early 1980s, no major new comparative datasets covering multiple brain regions and a large number of primate species have become available. However, technological and other advances in the last two decades, particularly magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and the creation of institutions devoted to the collection and preservation of rare brain specimens, provide opportunities to rectify this situation. Here, we present a new dataset including brain region volumetric measurements of 39 species, including 20 species not previously available in the literature, with measurements of 16 brain areas. These volumes were extracted from MRI of 46 brains of 38 species from the Netherlands Institute of Neuroscience Primate Brain Bank, scanned at high resolution with a 9.4-T scanner, plus a further 7 donated MRI of 4 primate species. Partial measurements were made on an additional 8 brains of 5 species. We make the dataset and MRI scans available online in the hope that they will be of value to researchers conducting comparative studies of primate evolution.

Tufted capuchin monkeys (Sapajus sp) learning how to crack nuts: does variability decline throughout development?

We investigated the process of nut-cracking acquisition in a semi-free population of tufted capuchin monkeys (Sapajus sp) in São Paulo, Brazil. We analyzed the cracking episodes from monkeys of different ages and found that variability of actions related to cracking declined. Inept movements were more frequent in juveniles, which also showed an improvement on efficient striking. The most effective behavioral sequence for cracking was more frequently used by the most experienced monkeys, which also used non-optimal sequences. Variability in behavior sequences and actions may allow adaptive changes to behavior under changing environmental conditions.

On the controversy over non-human culture: the reasons for disagreement and possible directions toward consensus.

In recent decades, animal behaviorists have been using the term culture in relation to non-human animals, starting a controversy with social scientists that is still far from cooling down. I investigated the meanings of the term culture as used by social and cultural anthropologists, and also its recent use by ethologists, in order to better understand this controversy and identify possible paths that might lead to a consensus. I argue that disagreements in the level of theories involve definitions of culture and theories of behavioral development, while disagreements in the level of worldviews include the acceptance or rejection of the idea of a radical distinction between humans and other animals. Reaching a synthetic approach to (human and non-human) animal behavior depends on constructing a consensus in both levels. It is also necessary to discuss how to include symbolic communication in a comparative perspective. I conclude that this might lead to the abandonment or reconstruction of the related dichotomies of nature-culture, innate-acquired and gene-environment. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Neotropical Behaviour.

A controvérsia em torno da atribuição de cultura a animais não humanos: uma revisão crítica / The controversy over the attribution of culture to nonhuman animals: a critical review / La controversia alrededor de la atribución de cultura a animales no humanos: una revisión crítica

Nas últimas décadas, estudiosos do comportamento têm afirmado que animais não humanos apresentam cultura, dando início a uma controvérsia, especialmente com antropólogos socioculturais, que ainda não foi resolvida. Com o objetivo de compreender melhor essa controvérsia e identificar possíveis direções de consenso, nós revisamos o desenvolvimento da noção de cultura na antropologia sociocultural e sua utilização na literatura etológica. Argumentamos que antropólogos socioculturais e estudiosos do comportamento animal divergem em termos de suas teorias e visões de mundo. Para alcançar uma abordagem sintética do comportamento animal que inclua humanos e não humanos, sem ignorar as características próprias de cada espécie, seria desejável construir um consenso nesses dois níveis. A questão dos símbolos e significados é central para a noção antropológica de cultura e, portanto, será necessário incluí-la em uma perspectiva comparativa. Concluímos que uma direção de consenso teórico encontra-se em abordagens críticas às dualidades natureza-cultura, inato-adquirido e gene-ambiente.(AU)

In recent decades, animal behaviorists have attributed culture to non-human animals, starting a controversy with socio-cultural anthropologists that is still far from cooling down. In order to better understand this controversy, and to identify possible paths that might lead to a consensus, we reviewed the meanings of the term culture as used by socio-cultural anthropologists, and also the history of its use in ethology (specially primatology). We argue that socio-cultural anthropologists and ethologists disagree in terms of their theories and worldviews. In order to reach a synthetic approach to human and non-human animal behavior, without ignoring species-typical characteristics, it is desirable to search for consensus in both levels. The questions of symbols and of meanings are central to the anthropological notion of culture; therefore it will be necessary to discuss how to include them in a comparative perspective. We conclude that a direction of consensus may be found in theoretical approaches that are critical to the related dichotomies of nature-culture, innate-acquired and gene-environment.(AU)

En las últimas décadas, estudiosos del comportamiento han afirmado que animales no humanos presentan cultura, iniciándose una controversia, sobre todo con antropólogos socioculturales, que todavía no está resuelta. Con el objetivo de mejorar la comprensión de dicha controversia e identificar posibles direcciones de consenso, hemos revisado el desarrollo de la noción de la cultura en la antropología sociocultural y su utilización en la literatura etológica. Argumentamos que antropólogos socioculturales y estudiosos del comportamiento animal divergen en términos de sus teorías y visiones de mundo. Para alcanzar un abordaje sintético del comportamiento animal que incluya humanos y no humanos y sin ignorar las características propias de cada especie, sería deseable construir un consenso en estos dos niveles. La cuestión de los símbolos y significados es parte central de la noción antropológica de cultura y, por tanto, será necesario incluirla desde una perspectiva comparativa. Hemos concluído que una dirección de consenso teórico se encuentra en los abordajes críticos a las dualidades naturaleza-cultura, inato-adquirido y genético-medioambiental.(AU)

A controvérsia em torno da atribuição de cultura a animais não humanos: uma revisão crítica / The controversy over the attribution of culture to nonhuman animals: a critical review / La controversia alrededor de la atribución de cultura a animales no humanos: una revisión crítica

Nas últimas décadas, estudiosos do comportamento têm afirmado que animais não humanos apresentam cultura, dando início a uma controvérsia, especialmente com antropólogos socioculturais, que ainda não foi resolvida. Com o objetivo de compreender melhor essa controvérsia e identificar possíveis direções de consenso, nós revisamos o desenvolvimento da noção de cultura na antropologia sociocultural e sua utilização na literatura etológica. Argumentamos que antropólogos socioculturais e estudiosos do comportamento animal divergem em termos de suas teorias e visões de mundo. Para alcançar uma abordagem sintética do comportamento animal que inclua humanos e não humanos, sem ignorar as características próprias de cada espécie, seria desejável construir um consenso nesses dois níveis. A questão dos símbolos e significados é central para a noção antropológica de cultura e, portanto, será necessário incluí-la em uma perspectiva comparativa. Concluímos que uma direção de consenso teórico encontra-se em abordagens críticas às dualidades natureza-cultura, inato-adquirido e gene-ambiente...

In recent decades, animal behaviorists have attributed culture to non-human animals, starting a controversy with socio-cultural anthropologists that is still far from cooling down. In order to better understand this controversy, and to identify possible paths that might lead to a consensus, we reviewed the meanings of the term culture as used by socio-cultural anthropologists, and also the history of its use in ethology (specially primatology). We argue that socio-cultural anthropologists and ethologists disagree in terms of their theories and worldviews. In order to reach a synthetic approach to human and non-human animal behavior, without ignoring species-typical characteristics, it is desirable to search for consensus in both levels. The questions of symbols and of meanings are central to the anthropological notion of culture; therefore it will be necessary to discuss how to include them in a comparative perspective. We conclude that a direction of consensus may be found in theoretical approaches that are critical to the related dichotomies of nature-culture, innate-acquired and gene-environment...

En las últimas décadas, estudiosos del comportamiento han afirmado que animales no humanos presentan cultura, iniciándose una controversia, sobre todo con antropólogos socioculturales, que todavía no está resuelta. Con el objetivo de mejorar la comprensión de dicha controversia e identificar posibles direcciones de consenso, hemos revisado el desarrollo de la noción de la cultura en la antropología sociocultural y su utilización en la literatura etológica. Argumentamos que antropólogos socioculturales y estudiosos del comportamiento animal divergen en términos de sus teorías y visiones de mundo. Para alcanzar un abordaje sintético del comportamiento animal que incluya humanos y no humanos y sin ignorar las características propias de cada especie, sería deseable construir un consenso en estos dos niveles. La cuestión de los símbolos y significados es parte central de la noción antropológica de cultura y, por tanto, será necesario incluirla desde una perspectiva comparativa. Hemos concluído que una dirección de consenso teórico se encuentra en los abordajes críticos a las dualidades naturaleza-cultura, inato-adquirido y genético-medioambiental...

A atribuição de cultura a primatas não humanos: a controvérsia e a busca por uma abordagem sintética / The attribution of culture to nonhuman primates: the controversy and the search for a synthetic approach

A separação histórica entre as ciências naturais e as ciências sociais fundamenta-se na distinção ontológica entre os domínios da natureza e da cultura, e na ideia moderna de que a condição (cultural) humana corresponde a um afastamento radical dos outros animais. Porém, somando-se a outros críticos insatisfeitos com essa visão dualista, muitos estudiosos do comportamento animal tem utilizado o termo cultura em referência a não humanos, provocando uma controvérsia que ainda parece longe de um consenso. Neste trabalho, investiguei o sentido da noção de cultura para os antropólogos e o uso etológico (limitando-nos aos primatas) do termo, com os objetivos de compreender melhor a controvérsia e identificar caminhos possíveis na busca por um consenso. Na Antropologia, a noção moderna de cultura se desenvolveu do século XIX até os anos 1950. Cultura passou a ser vista como um fenômeno emergente exclusivamente humano, dependente de nossa capacidade de utilizar símbolos e correspondendo aos padrões e normas comportamentais, artefatos, ideias e, principalmente, valores que os indivíduos adquirem no processo de socialização. Mais recentemente, essa concepção de cultura, e a epistemologia dualista que a sustenta, tem sido alvo de críticas e intenso debate. Ainda que não compartilhem um arcabouço teórico comum, virtualmente todos os antropólogos contemporâneos concordam que o comportamento cultural humano é fundamentalmente simbólico. A discussão recente em torno da atribuição de cultura a primatas não humanos remonta aos estudiosos japoneses que, na década de 1950, acompanharam a dispersão de uma nova técnica de manipulação de alimento em Macaca fuscata, e descreveram o fenômeno com os termos pré-cultura, subcultura e cultura infra-humana. A partir da década de 1960, as pesquisas de campo com populações selvagens e as evidências experimentais de aprendizagem em contexto social levaram ao estabelecimento da Primatologia Cultural (...)

... e os prefixos foram abandonados. Entre primatólogos, o termo cultura se refere a padrões comportamentais que dependem de um contexto social para se desenvolver, e que podem atravessar gerações. Eu sugiro uma estratégia analítica que distingue os motivos de discordância entre descrições, explicações, teorias e visões de mundo, e argumento que a controvérsia é complexa e inclui discordâncias entre visões de mundo sem, no entanto, dividir os envolvidos em grupos homogêneos (digamos, primatólogos contra antropólogos). Por conta disso, a redefinição e o uso que os primatólogos fazem do termo acabam por manter ilesos os fundamentos da dicotomia natureza/cultura, o que pode explicar, parcialmente, a manutenção da controvérsia. Concluo que o diálogo entre os dois lados da fronteira será imprescindível para os pesquisadores que estiverem interessados em buscar uma abordagem consensual. É possível alcançar um consenso, mas a busca por uma abordagem sintética do comportamento animal que inclua os humanos deverá levar ao abandono ou reconstrução das dualidades natureza / cultura, inato / adquirido e gene / ambiente, e também da atribuição de primazia causal aos genes. Além disso, é necessário discutir a fundo sobre como incluir a questão do simbolismo e do significado em uma perspectiva comparativa

The Western ontological distinction between nature and culture, and the idea that the human (cultural) condition makes us radically different from other animals, are evident in the historical separation between the natural and social sciences. In parallel to other critics of this dualist view, some animal behaviorists have been using the term culture in relation to nonhumans, starting a controversy that is still far from cooling down. In this study, I investigated the meaning of the term culture as used by anthropologists, and also its recent use by ethologists (limiting myself to primatology), in order to better understand the controversy and identify possible paths that might lead to a consensus. In Anthropology, the modern concept of culture developed between the 19th century and the 1950s. It came to be seen as an emergent phenomenon exclusive to human social life. It was dependent on our capacity to use symbols and corresponded to behavioral patterns and norms, artifacts, ideas, and values that individuals acquire in the process of socialization. But this conception of culture, and the dualist epistemology supporting it, have since been largely criticized and intensely debated. Although contemporary anthropologists do not share a common ground or framework, virtually all of them agree that human cultural behavior is fundamentally symbolic. Recent attribution of culture to nonhuman primates started with Japanese scholars who, from the 1950s onward, have followed closely the spread of novel behaviors in Macaca fuscata, which they described with expressions such as preculture, subculture and infrahuman culture. Since the 1960s, field studies on wild populations and experimental research on learning in a social context, have led to the establishment of cultural primatology, and the prefixes were abandoned. Among primatologists, the term culture refers (...)

... to behavioral patterns that depend on the social context to develop and that might be recurrent through generations. I suggest that it might be analytically useful to distinguish the matters of a disagreement between descriptions, explanations, theories and worldviews, and argue that this controversy goes all the way up to the highest reason of disagreement (worldviews). Still, one cannot divide those involved in it into a few homogeneous groups (say, primatologists contra anthropologists). Primatologists redefinition and use of the term do not alter the foundations of the criticized nature/culture dichotomy, and that might at least partially explain the maintenance of the controversy. It is possible to reach a consensus, but the search for a synthetic framework for animal behavior that includes humans might lead to the abandonment or reconstruction of the related dichotomies of nature/culture, innate/acquired and gene/environment, as well as of the causal primacy attributed to genes. It is also necessary to discuss how to include symbols and meanings in a comparative perspective