Telework, working conditions, health and wellbeing during the Covid crisis: A gendered analysis.

OBJECTIVE: Telework was massively adopted during the COVID-19 crisis. Related changes in working conditions may have affected women's and men's health differently due to the gendered division of work. Our study aimed to assess the gendered association of telework with physical and mental health outcomes one year after the onset of the pandemic and to determine whether the pathways of working conditions underlying these associations are gender-related. METHODS: We compared pre-pandemic and Covid-crisis work contexts using a large representative sample of French employees surveyed in early 2021. We identified potential work-related mediators of the relationship between telework and well-being, i.e., change in autonomy, low support, work overload, digital issues, atypical working time, meaning at work, and work-life balance, and used multiple-matching and adjusting for confounders. RESULTS: All things being equal, the health and well-being of teleworkers were, on average, less favourable than that of on-site workers, with little gender differences. The selected working conditions mediated a substantial part of the relationship, indicating that important pathways were captured, such as meaning at work. These pathways partly differed between women and men. In particular, in new teleworkers, the largest contributions came from digital issues for women, and from low support at work and work overload for men. CONCLUSION: People who teleworked during the pandemic were at higher odds of deterioration of health and well-being than onsite workers. Health patterns were similar among male and female teleworkers; however, the pathways differed. These negative effects may yet have been absorbed once the government pandemic response became less stringent.

Return Migration and Fertility: French Overseas Emigrants, Returnees, and Nonmigrants at Origin and Destination.

Although growing research has emphasized the critical importance of studying returns for understanding various aspects of migration processes, knowledge regarding return migrants' fertility behaviors remains limited. This study addresses this knowledge gap by comparing rates of first births and completed fertility among three groups: nonmigrants (at origin), migrants, and return migrants. Using extensive data collected both in the home regions and at destination, we analyze female migration from Martinique, Guadeloupe, French Guiana, and Réunion Island to metropolitan France (European France). We find intermediate fertility behaviors for return migrants relative to nonmigrants and migrants: on average, completed fertility levels are lower among return migrants than nonmigrants but slightly higher among return migrants than migrants. Some of these differences can be attributed to selection into migration and return, although significant gaps persist among women with similar socioeconomic characteristics. Our findings highlight three key observations. First, when migrants return before beginning childbearing, their transition to motherhood closely resembles that of nonmigrants with similar characteristics. Second, the lower fertility rates among prospective return migrants indicate an anticipation of disruption effects. Finally, reduced fertility while residing in metropolitan France translates into lower completed fertility rates for return migrants.

Do Income and Employment Uncertainty Affect Couple Stability? Evidence for France During the COVID-19 Pandemic.

Economic uncertainty and family dynamics are strictly connected. The increasing uncertainty generated by the Covid-19 pandemic is thus likely to affect couple relationships and stability, with potential opposite effects. Using data from the nationally representative EPICOV survey, that followed individuals throughout the first year of pandemic in France, we examined separation rates and how these were associated with different measures of employment and income uncertainty, including both pre-pandemic conditions and changes occurred during and after the first lockdown in Spring 2020 in France. Our results show increased rates of separation, especially among younger people, during the 6 months after the first lockdown, and a return to rates more similar to those observed in usual times, afterwards. Individuals who were unemployed and had lower income before the beginning of the pandemic were more likely to separate soon after the lockdown, while changes in employment conditions due to the lockdown were not linked with a higher separation risk. The job protection and the income compensation provided by the French state, as well a less stigmatising effect of unemployment occurred during the covid crisis, may explain the absence of effect. Self-declared deterioration in financial condition, especially when declared by men, was associated with higher separation risk for the whole year of observation.

Health after union dissolution(s): Cumulative and temporal dynamics.

The number of individuals experiencing one or multiple union dissolutions in their lifetime is increasing. The literature has shown significant interactions with health disorders, in response to the crisis situation that affects the spouses. However, processes are still unclear, in particular regarding the timing of the affection. This study explored whether different health disorders are observed shortly after dissolution or are delayed, and whether they are short- or long-lasting. We used data from the two waves (2006 and 2010) of the French Health and Professional Lives Survey (SIP) among 8349 individuals aged 25-64 years. Based on three health disorders, we studied 1) their levels in relation to the retrospective histories of union dissolutions; 2) health changes associated with a dissolution occurring between the two waves. We found that individuals who experienced one or multiple union dissolutions had worse self-rated health, more depressive symptoms and sleep disorders. The two latter were more related with a recent dissolution than with distant ones, suggesting an immediate association, yet long-lasting. Self-rated health was related with distant dissolutions only, suggesting a lagged, however also long-lasting association. Experiencing union dissolution between the two waves was linked to a higher probability of the onset of sleep disorders and depressive mood, and of deterioration of self-rated health if it was not the first dissolution. Our study shows that union dissolutions are highly correlated with different poor health measures, in the short and the long run, depending on the health disorder, with cumulative and durable effects.

Social inequalities and dynamics of the early COVID-19 epidemic: a prospective cohort study in France.

OBJECTIVE: Although social inequalities in COVID-19 mortality by race, gender and socioeconomic status are well documented, less is known about social disparities in infection rates and their shift over time. We aim to study the evolution of social disparities in infection at the early stage of the epidemic in France with regard to the policies implemented. DESIGN: Random population-based prospective cohort. SETTING: From May to June 2020 in France. PARTICIPANTS: Adults included in the Epidémiologie et Conditions de Vie cohort (n=77 588). MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Self-reported anosmia and/or ageusia in three categories: no symptom, during the first epidemic peak (in March 2020) or thereafter (during lockdown). RESULTS: In all, 2052 participants (1.53%) reported anosmia/ageusia. The social distribution of exposure factors (density of place of residence, overcrowded housing and working outside the home) was described. Multinomial regressions were used to identify changes in social variables (gender, class and race) associated with symptoms of anosmia/ageusia. Women were more likely to report symptoms during the peak and after. Racialised minorities accumulated more exposure risk factors than the mainstream population and were at higher risk of anosmia/ageusia during the peak and after. By contrast, senior executive professionals were the least exposed to the virus with the lower rate of working outside the home during lockdown. They were more affected than lower social classes at the peak of the epidemic, but this effect disappeared after the peak. CONCLUSION: The shift in the social profile of the epidemic was related to a shift in exposure factors under the implementation of a stringent stay-at-home order. Our study shows the importance to consider in a dynamic way the gender, socioeconomic and race direct and indirect effects of the COVID-19 pandemic, notably to implement policies that do not widen health inequalities.

When lockdown policies amplify social inequalities in COVID-19 infections: evidence from a cross-sectional population-based survey in France.

BACKGROUND: Significant differences in COVID-19 incidence by gender, class and race/ethnicity are recorded in many countries in the world. Lockdown measures, shown to be effective in reducing the number of new cases, may not have been effective in the same way for all, failing to protect the most vulnerable populations. This survey aims to assess social inequalities in the trends in COVID-19 infections following lockdown. METHODS: A cross-sectional survey conducted among the general population in France in April 2020, during COVID-19 lockdown. Ten thousand one hundred one participants aged 18-64, from a national cohort who lived in the three metropolitan French regions most affected by the first wave of COVID-19. The main outcome was occurrence of possible COVID-19 symptoms, defined as the occurrence of sudden onset of cough, fever, dyspnea, ageusia and/or anosmia, that lasted more than 3 days in the 15 days before the survey. We used multinomial regression models to identify social and health factors related to possible COVID-19 before and during the lockdown. RESULTS: In all, 1304 (13.0%; 95% CI: 12.0-14.0%) reported cases of possible COVID-19. The effect of lockdown on the occurrence of possible COVID-19 was different across social hierarchies. The most privileged class individuals saw a significant decline in possible COVID-19 infections between the period prior to lockdown and during the lockdown (from 8.8 to 4.3%, P = 0.0001) while the decline was less pronounced among working class individuals (6.9% before lockdown and 5.5% during lockdown, P = 0.03). This differential effect of lockdown remained significant after adjusting for other factors including history of chronic disease. The odds of being infected during lockdown as opposed to the prior period increased by 57% among working class individuals (OR = 1.57; 95% CI: 1.00-2.48). The same was true for those engaged in in-person professional activities during lockdown (OR = 1.53; 95% CI: 1.03-2.29). CONCLUSIONS: Lockdown was associated with social inequalities in the decline in COVID-19 infections, calling for the adoption of preventive policies to account for living and working conditions. Such adoptions are critical to reduce social inequalities related to COVID-19, as working-class individuals also have the highest COVID-19 related mortality, due to higher prevalence of comorbidities.

The Time Cost of Raising Children in Different Fertility Contexts: Evidence from France and Italy.

This article provides an original comparison of the time cost of children for the parental couple and for each parent in two European countries-France and Italy-that differ in terms of structural and normative constraints. Using time-use surveys carried out in 2008-2009 in Italy and in 2009-2010 in France, it investigates how Italian and French couples' time use varies quantitatively according to the number and the age of their children. We estimate both the direct and indirect time cost of children and take into account the compression of the parents' free time. After controlling for numerous covariates, the results corroborate the hypothesis that Italian children have a higher direct cost for couples (especially those with a large family or with preschool children), but also for mothers and fathers separately. Faced with this huge burden of childcare time, Italian women adjust by substituting housework with childcare. The presence of children reduces parents' free time in both countries, but large families in Italy experience a higher and persistent loss of free time than in France. The gender imbalance in childcare is similar in both countries, but a more pronounced gender gap in time dedicated to domestic work is observed in Italy than in France. The loss of free time is always greater for women than for men in both countries, but in France, women's free time is only partially affected by the number of children, contrary to Italy.

The time benefits of young adult home stayers in France and Italy: a new perspective on the transition to adulthood?

This article analyses how two co-residing generations contribute to the housework workload in Italy and France during the early 2000s. It studies the intergenerational exchange of time between young adults and their parents by indirectly comparing the level of domestic comfort enjoyed by young people in the two closely neighbouring countries. A focus on the reasons for staying in the parental home provides an explanation for the tendency of young Italian adults to prolong their stay in the family nest. The results of time-use surveys suggest that young Italians (especially young men) may benefit more than their French counterparts in co-residing with their parents. Beyond the compositional or structural effects, they perform fewer domestic tasks than their French counterparts, a result that is related to different cultural practices.

Gender career divide and women's disadvantage in depressive symptoms and physical limitations in France.

This study investigated the relationship between women's disadvantage in mental health and physical functioning and gender differences in career backgrounds. Sexual division of labor persists and key career characteristics are overrepresented in women: low-skilled first job, downward occupational trajectory, interruptions. These interrelated characteristics are usually linked to poor health. Their overrepresentation in women may be related to the female-male health gap; however, it may not if overrepresentation transposed into substantially weaker associations with poor health outcomes. To address this question, we used the French population survey "Health and Occupational Trajectories" (2006) and focused on 45-74 year-old individuals who ever worked (n=7537). Past career characteristics were qualified by retrospective information. Logistic regressions identified past characteristics related to current depressive symptoms and physical limitations. Non-linear decomposition showed whether these characteristics contributed to the gender health gap, through their different distribution and/or association with health. The overrepresentation of unskilled first jobs, current and past inactivity and unemployment in women contributed to their excess depressive symptoms. These contributions were only slightly reduced by the weaker mental health-relatedness of current inactivity in women and increased by the stronger relatedness of low-skilled and self-employed first jobs. Overrepresentation of current inactivity, past interruptions and downward trajectories also contributed positively to women's excess physical limitations. Gender-specific career backgrounds were significantly linked to women's disadvantage in mental health and physical functioning. We need to further explore whether equalization of opportunities, especially at the early stages and in terms of career continuity, could help to reduce women's mental and physical health disadvantage.