Serum phosphate modifies the vascular response to vitamin D receptor activation in chronic kidney disease (CKD) patients.

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: Vitamin D receptor activation (VDRA) ameliorates endothelial dysfunction in CKD patients but also increases phosphate and FGF-23, which may attenuate the beneficial effect of VDRA on endothelial function. METHODS AND RESULTS: This is a pre-specified secondary analysis of the PENNY trial (NCT01680198) testing the effect of phosphate and FGF-23 on the flow mediated vasodilatory (FMD) response to paricalcitol (PCT, 2 µg/day) and placebo over a 12-weeks treatment period. Eighty-eight stage G3-4 CKD patients were randomized to PCT (n = 44) and Placebo (n = 44). Endothelial function was assessed by measuring endothelium dependent forearm blood flow (FBF) response to ischemia. The FMD response was by the 61% higher in PCT treated patients than in those on placebo (P = 0.01). Phosphate (+11%, P = 0.039), calcium (+3%, P = 0.01) and, particularly so, FGF23 (+164%, P < 0.001) increased in PCT treated patients. Changes in FMD by PCT associated inversely with phosphate (r = -0.37, P = 0.01) but were independent of FGF-23, calcium and PTH changes. The response to PCT was maximal in patients with no changes in phosphate (1st tertile), attenuated in those with mild-to-moderate rise in phosphate (2nd tertile) and abolished in those with the most pronounced phosphate increase (3rd tertile) (effect modification P = 0.009). No effect modification by FGF-23 and other variables was observed. CONCLUSIONS: The beneficial effect of PCT on endothelial function in CKD is maximal in patients with no or minimal changes in phosphate and it is abolished in patients with a pronounced phosphate rise. These findings generate the hypothesis that the endothelium protective effect by VDRA may be potentiated by phosphate lowering interventions.

[Hypertension in dialysis patients. Italian Guidelines]. / Linee Guida sull'ipertensione arteriosa nei pazienti in dialisi.

There are 44,000 dialysis patients in Italy and it is estimated that about 50% of them are hypertensive. In dialysis patients arterial blood pressure (BP) is highly variable, as it gradually increases in the interdialytic interval and decreases more or less rapidly during dialysis. Sodium retention and volume expansion play a major role in hypertension in these patients; and therefore, this alteration constitutes a main treatment target in this patient population. The great majority of patients also require antihypertensive drugs. The pharmacokinetics of these drugs are often modified by renal failure and peculiar dose adjustments must be adopted in this setting.

Long-term CAPD patients are volume expanded and display more severe left ventricular hypertrophy than haemodialysis patients.

BACKGROUND: Whether hypertension and left ventricular hypertrophy (LVH) are more prevalent in CAPD than in haemodialysis (HD) patients is still under discussion. METHODS: To examine this problem we compared a group of 51 CAPD patients, with a group of 201 HD patients. The evaluation included the measurement of atrial natriuretic peptide (atrial natriuretic factor (ANF)), taken as indicator of volume status, and echocardiographic measurements. RESULTS: CAPD patients were older, had been treated for a shorter time, and had lower serum albumin and phosphate than HD patients. Plasma ANF was higher (P<0.01) in CAPD (median 33.8 pmol/l (interquartile range 18.2-63.0)) than in HD patients (22.7 pmol/l (14.9-38.7)). Similarly, the left atrial volume was substantially higher (P<0.0001) in CAPD patients (49+/-22 ml) than in HD patients (37+/-17 ml), while the left ventricular end-diastolic diameter was similar in the two groups (CAPD 51+/-7 mm; HD 50+/-7 mm). Furthermore, left ventricular hypertrophy was more severe (P<0.0001) in CAPD (157+/-37 g/m(2)) than in HD patients (133+/-39 g/m(2)). The proportion of CAPD patients requiring antihypertensive drugs was markedly higher than that of HD patients (65 vs 38% P<0.001). Multivariate modelling showed that volume expansion and pressure load as well as serum albumin were independent predictors of left ventricular mass. CONCLUSIONS: Left ventricular hypertrophy is more severe in long-term CAPD patients than in HD patients. This finding is associated with evidence of more pronounced volume expansion, hypertension, and hypoalbuminaemia. Volume and pressure load along with factors associated with hypoalbuminaemia may aggravate LVH in uraemic patients on CAPD.

Smoking, blood pressure and serum albumin are major determinants of carotid atherosclerosis in dialysis patients. CREED Investigators. Cardiovascular Risk Extended Evaluation in Dialysis patients.

AIM: To investigate the relationship between carotid atherosclerosis and some major cardiovascular risk factors in uremic patients on chronic dialysis. METHODS: A cross-sectional study was carried out in 119 unselected dialysis patients (89 on hemodialysis and 30 on chronic ambulatory peritoneal dialysis, CAPD). Fasting blood sampling for serum lipids, albumin, hemoglobin, and echo-colour-Doppler evaluation of common carotid arteries were performed in all patients (during the non-dialysis day in hemodialysis patients). In hemodialysis patients BP was measured before and after dialysis; in CAPD patients home BP values were recorded during the month before the study day. RESULTS: Ninety-five patients had at least one plaque and 57 had at least four plaques. Thirty-eight had mild and eleven severe carotid stenosis. In multiple regression models, the mean internal diameter of carotid arteries was explained (R=0.52, P=0.0001) by systolic pressure (r=0.39), serum cholesterol (r=-0.28), age (r=0.27) and smoking (r=0.24) while the degree of carotid stenosis was predicted (R=0.39, P=0.0001) by age (r=0.36) and smoking (r=0.25). The number of atherosclerotic plaques was explained (R=0.51, P=0.0001) by age (r=0.36), smoking (r=0.25) and pulse pressure (r=0.20), serum albumin just failing to reach statistical significance (P = 0.06). However, serum albumin was a significant and independent predictor of the number of atherosclerotic plaques (r=-0.26) in hemodialysis patients (n=89). Sex, diabetes, Kt/V, duration of dialysis treatment, hemoglobin, serum calcium and phosphate did not add any predictive power to the models. CONCLUSIONS: In dialysis patients arterial pressure and smoking are associated with carotid atherosclerosis. Serum albumin appears to serve as an independent predictor of carotid atherosclerosis.

Nocturnal hypoxemia, night-day arterial pressure changes and left ventricular geometry in dialysis patients.

It is well established that nocturnal hypoxemia in sleep apnea causes an inversion of the circadian arterial pressure rhythm and triggers nocturnal hypertension. Since sleep apnea is very frequent in dialysis patients, we hypothesized that nocturnal hypoxemia may be a factor that contributes to alter the 24-hour arterial pressure profile in these patients. To test the hypothesis 32 dialysis patients underwent 24-hour blood pressure (BP) monitoring and continuous monitoring of arterial O2 saturation during the night-time. Hemodialysis patients were studied during the non-dialysis day. All patients underwent an echocardiographic study. Thirteen patients had no episode of nocturnal hypoxemia (group I), 7 had at least one episode overnight but less than 2 episodes/hr (group II) and 12 had > or = 2 episodes/hr (group III). The average daytime systolic pressure was similar in the three groups. However, the average nocturnal systolic pressure fell in the first group (-2.5 +/- 4.2%) and rose in the second (+2.0 +/- 3.6%) and in the third (+3.9 +/- 2.2%) group (one way ANOVA, P < 0.005). The relative wall thickness of the left ventricle (RWT) was significantly (P < 0.05) higher in group III than in group I, and in the aggregate (N = 32) there was an inverse relationship between average nocturnal SaO2 and RWT (r = -0.43, P = 0.015). The proportion of patients with concentric remodeling or concentric hypertrophy was higher (P = 0.05) in the group with a more severe degree of nocturnal hypoxemia (group III, 8 of 12) than in the other two groups (group I, 3 of 13; group II, 2 of 7). Nocturnal hypoxemia is associated with the "non-dipping" arterial pressure profile in dialysis patients. Disturbed respiratory control during the night may represent an important cardiovascular risk factor in dialysis patients.

The heart rate response pattern to dialysis hypotension in haemodialysis patients.

BACKGROUND: Hypotension during haemodialysis may be caused by the activation of a cardiovascular reflex causing abrupt sympathetic withdrawal, vasodilatation and bradycardia (bradycardic hypotension). However, the frequency of this type of hypotension is undefined and it is unclear whether or not it underlies a peculiar predisposition to vasodepressor syncope. OBJECTIVE: To assess the prevalence of bradycardic hypotension and to test the hypothesis that dialysis patients are predisposed to vasodepressor syncope. RESULTS: Sixty hypotensive episodes were recorded in 20 patients (> or = 2 episodes in 15 patients). Heart rate increased in 35 episodes, did not change in 19 episodes and decreased in six episodes. The HR response pattern to hypotension was reproducible in 10 patients (always tachycardia, 6; always unchanged heart rate 4). Patients developing bradycardic hypotension (n = 5) all had an erratic HR response to hypotension (i.e. bradycardia preceded or followed by tachycardia or by no HR change) and were characterized either by the typical haemodynamic pattern of hypovolaemia (predialysis hypotension, tachycardia and low TBW) or by being treated with a very high UF rate (> 0.3 ml/kg/min). Post-dialysis echocardiography showed that the LVEDD was less (one-tailed P = 0.055) in patients with bradycardic hypotension than in those with tachycardic responses or with unchanged HR. On tilt testing (after dialysis) three of 11 (27%) dialysis hypotensive patients developed bradycardic hypotension. This proportion was identical to that expected in healthy subjects and in control patients without syncope. CONCLUSIONS: Tachycardia is the more frequent heart rate response to dialysis hypotension in uraemic patients. Bradycardic hypotension in dialysis patients is associated with a haemodynamic profile indicating a more severe degree of cardiovascular underfilling. Bradycardic hypotension probably represents a physiological response to hypovolaemia rather than the expression of a peculiar predisposition to vasodepressor syncope.