Fuzzy logic-based health risk assessment of fluoride in groundwater used as drinking source in Sira region, Tumkur, India.

Fluoride contamination in drinking water is a serious public health concern across the world, and more than 90 million people in India are affected by health risks associated with fluoride. Though the fatality due to fluoride chronic toxicity is uncommon, the exposure to fluoride at different concentration levels shows various adverse health effects such as dental and skeletal fluorosis, multiorgan failure, cognitive and behavioural effects. Hence, the objectives of the present study are to understand the hydrogeochemistry and drinking water suitability of groundwater of the Sira region, Karnataka, India, and to understand the occurrence of fluoride and its health risks using the United State Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA) method and fuzzy logic concepts. Forty-six samples were collected from each pre and post-monsoon season. The hydrogeochemistry studied through Chadha's diagram and Gibb's diagram indicated that the groundwater in this region is of Na-Cl type and the hydrogeochemistry is majorly controlled by rock-water interaction and followed by evaporative dominance. Water quality parameters were compared with drinking water standards guidelines, and the results showed that around 50% of the samples were contaminated with fluoride. The occurrence of high levels of fluoride in the study region is associated to the presence of granitic rocks and it is influenced by high pH and low calcium dissolution in the groundwater. Based on US EPA method, the order of population group under the risk of dental and skeletal fluorosis, is children > adolescents > adults. A fuzzy inference system model is developed to assess the health risk due to fluoride and its output gives severity levels of each type of health risk, i.e. dental caries, dental fluorosis and skeletal fluorosis. The results of the application of the fuzzy inference system model in the Sira region showed that the children (< 8 Yr.) are more susceptible to the moderate risk of dental caries, dental fluorosis and skeletal fluorosis. Whereas adolescents (8-18 Yr.) and adults (> 18 Yr.) are less susceptible to low-very low risk. Hence, health risks associated with fluoride can be better addressed with the help of a fuzzy inference system model which can be used for more reliable and grounded results to improve the quality of decision-making.

Managed Aquifer Recharge in the Gulf Countries: A Review and Selection Criteria.

The Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) countries are arid with very limited availability of water resources. In recent years, these countries have started an intensive program to increase the storage of groundwater through various techniques of managed aquifer recharge (MAR). Water consisting of varying quantity and quality (derived from various sources) are used via MAR techniques to increase the groundwater storage and, if possible to enhance its quality, respectively. This paper presents a review of the MAR techniques practiced in GCC countries including the implementation strategies of the different structures. Generally, seven MAR techniques are utilized in GCC countries including dams, aquifer storage and recovery (ASR) technique, aquifer storage transfer and recovery (ASTR) technique, ponds, soil aquifer treatment (SAT) technique, rooftop rainwater harvesting, and Karez/Ain system. Results indicated that ASR using excess desalinated water or treated sewage effluent (TSE) is the most used MAR technique in GCC countries, followed by the use of ASTR, dams, and ponds. Based on this review, twelve different selection criteria have been developed for GCC countries for better MAR practice in the future.