Selective effects of protein 4.1N deficiency on neuroendocrine and reproductive systems.

Protein 4.1N, a member of the protein 4.1 family, is highly expressed in the brain. But its function remains to be fully defined. Using 4.1N-/- mice, we explored the function of 4.1N in vivo. We show that 4.1N-/- mice were born at a significantly reduced Mendelian ratio and exhibited high mortality between 3 to 5 weeks of age. Live 4.1N-/- mice were smaller than 4.1N+/+ mice. Notably, while there were no significant differences in organ/body weight ratio for most of the organs, the testis/body and ovary/body ratio were dramatically decreased in 4.1N-/- mice, demonstrating selective effects of 4.1N deficiency on the development of the reproductive systems. Histopathology of the reproductive organs showed atrophy of both testis and ovary. Specifically, in the testis there is a lack of spermatogenesis, lack of leydig cells and lack of mature sperm. Similarly, in the ovary there is a lack of follicular development and lack of corpora lutea formation, as well as lack of secretory changes in the endometrium. Examination of pituitary glands revealed that the secretory granules were significantly decreased in pituitary glands of 4.1N-/- compared to 4.1N+/+. Moreover, while GnRH was expressed in both neuronal cell body and axons in the hypothalamus of 4.1N+/+ mice, it was only expressed in the cell body but not the axons of 4.1N-/- mice. Our findings uncover a novel role for 4.1N in the axis of hypothalamus-pituitary gland-reproductive system.

Antisense targeting of decoy exons can reduce intron retention and increase protein expression in human erythroblasts.

The decoy exon model has been proposed to regulate a subset of intron retention (IR) events involving predominantly larger introns (>1 kb). Splicing reporter studies have shown that decoy splice sites are essential for activity, suggesting that decoys act by engaging intron-terminal splice sites and competing with cross-intron interactions required for intron excision. The decoy model predicts that antisense oligonucleotides may be able to block decoy splice sites in endogenous pre-mRNA, thereby reducing IR and increasing productive gene expression. Indeed, we now demonstrate that targeting a decoy 5' splice site in the O-GlcNAc transferase (OGT) gene reduced IR from ∼80% to ∼20% in primary human erythroblasts, accompanied by increases in spliced OGT RNA and OGT protein expression. The remaining OGT IR was refractory to antisense treatment and might be mediated by independent mechanism(s). In contrast, other retained introns were strongly dependent on decoy function, since antisense targeting of decoy 5' splice sites greatly reduced (SNRNP70) or nearly eliminated (SF3B1) IR in two widely expressed splicing factors, and also greatly reduced IR in transcripts encoding the erythroid-specific structural protein, α-spectrin (SPTA1). These results show that modulating decoy exon function can dramatically alter IR and suggest that dynamic regulation of decoy exons could be a mechanism to fine-tune gene expression post-transcriptionally in many cell types.

An important class of intron retention events in human erythroblasts is regulated by cryptic exons proposed to function as splicing decoys.

During terminal erythropoiesis, the splicing machinery in differentiating erythroblasts executes a robust intron retention (IR) program that impacts expression of hundreds of genes. We studied IR mechanisms in the SF3B1 splicing factor gene, which expresses ∼50% of its transcripts in late erythroblasts as a nuclear isoform that retains intron 4. RNA-seq analysis of nonsense-mediated decay (NMD)-inhibited cells revealed previously undescribed splice junctions, rare or not detected in normal cells, that connect constitutive exons 4 and 5 to highly conserved cryptic cassette exons within the intron. Minigene splicing reporter assays showed that these cassettes promote IR. Genome-wide analysis of splice junction reads demonstrated that cryptic noncoding cassettes are much more common in large (>1 kb) retained introns than they are in small retained introns or in nonretained introns. Functional assays showed that heterologous cassettes can promote retention of intron 4 in the SF3B1 splicing reporter. Although many of these cryptic exons were spliced inefficiently, they exhibited substantial binding of U2AF1 and U2AF2 adjacent to their splice acceptor sites. We propose that these exons function as decoys that engage the intron-terminal splice sites, thereby blocking cross-intron interactions required for excision. Developmental regulation of decoy function underlies a major component of the erythroblast IR program.

A dynamic intron retention program enriched in RNA processing genes regulates gene expression during terminal erythropoiesis.

Differentiating erythroblasts execute a dynamic alternative splicing program shown here to include extensive and diverse intron retention (IR) events. Cluster analysis revealed hundreds of developmentally-dynamic introns that exhibit increased IR in mature erythroblasts, and are enriched in functions related to RNA processing such as SF3B1 spliceosomal factor. Distinct, developmentally-stable IR clusters are enriched in metal-ion binding functions and include mitoferrin genes SLC25A37 and SLC25A28 that are critical for iron homeostasis. Some IR transcripts are abundant, e.g. comprising ∼50% of highly-expressed SLC25A37 and SF3B1 transcripts in late erythroblasts, and thereby limiting functional mRNA levels. IR transcripts tested were predominantly nuclear-localized. Splice site strength correlated with IR among stable but not dynamic intron clusters, indicating distinct regulation of dynamically-increased IR in late erythroblasts. Retained introns were preferentially associated with alternative exons with premature termination codons (PTCs). High IR was observed in disease-causing genes including SF3B1 and the RNA binding protein FUS. Comparative studies demonstrated that the intron retention program in erythroblasts shares features with other tissues but ultimately is unique to erythropoiesis. We conclude that IR is a multi-dimensional set of processes that post-transcriptionally regulate diverse gene groups during normal erythropoiesis, misregulation of which could be responsible for human disease.

A dynamic alternative splicing program regulates gene expression during terminal erythropoiesis.

Alternative pre-messenger RNA splicing remodels the human transcriptome in a spatiotemporal manner during normal development and differentiation. Here we explored the landscape of transcript diversity in the erythroid lineage by RNA-seq analysis of five highly purified populations of morphologically distinct human erythroblasts, representing the last four cell divisions before enucleation. In this unique differentiation system, we found evidence of an extensive and dynamic alternative splicing program encompassing genes with many diverse functions. Alternative splicing was particularly enriched in genes controlling cell cycle, organelle organization, chromatin function and RNA processing. Many alternative exons exhibited differentiation-associated switches in splicing efficiency, mostly in late-stage polychromatophilic and orthochromatophilic erythroblasts, in concert with extensive cellular remodeling that precedes enucleation. A subset of alternative splicing switches introduces premature translation termination codons into selected transcripts in a differentiation stage-specific manner, supporting the hypothesis that alternative splicing-coupled nonsense-mediated decay contributes to regulation of erythroid-expressed genes as a novel part of the overall differentiation program. We conclude that a highly dynamic alternative splicing program in terminally differentiating erythroblasts plays a major role in regulating gene expression to ensure synthesis of appropriate proteome at each stage as the cells remodel in preparation for production of mature red cells.

Rbfox proteins regulate alternative mRNA splicing through evolutionarily conserved RNA bridges.

Alternative splicing (AS) enables programmed diversity of gene expression across tissues and development. We show here that binding in distal intronic regions (>500 nucleotides (nt) from any exon) by Rbfox splicing factors important in development is extensive and is an active mode of splicing regulation. Similarly to exon-proximal sites, distal sites contain evolutionarily conserved GCATG sequences and are associated with AS activation and repression upon modulation of Rbfox abundance in human and mouse experimental systems. As a proof of principle, we validated the activity of two specific Rbfox enhancers in KIF21A and ENAH distal introns and showed that a conserved long-range RNA-RNA base-pairing interaction (an RNA bridge) is necessary for Rbfox-mediated exon inclusion in the ENAH gene. Thus we demonstrate a previously unknown RNA-mediated mechanism for AS control by distally bound RNA-binding proteins.

Deep intron elements mediate nested splicing events at consecutive AG dinucleotides to regulate alternative 3' splice site choice in vertebrate 4.1 genes.

Distal intraexon (iE) regulatory elements in 4.1R pre-mRNA govern 3' splice site choice at exon 2 (E2) via nested splicing events, ultimately modulating expression of N-terminal isoforms of cytoskeletal 4.1R protein. Here we explored intrasplicing in other normal and disease gene contexts and found conservation of intrasplicing through vertebrate evolution. In the paralogous 4.1B gene, we identified ∼120 kb upstream of E2 an ultradistal intraexon, iE(B), that mediates intrasplicing by promoting two intricately coupled splicing events that ensure selection of a weak distal acceptor at E2 (E2dis) by prior excision of the competing proximal acceptor (E2prox). Mutating iE(B) in minigene splicing reporters abrogated intrasplicing, as did blocking endogenous iE(B) function with antisense morpholinos in live mouse and zebrafish animal models. In a human elliptocytosis patient with a mutant 4.1R gene lacking E2 through E4, we showed that aberrant splicing is consistent with iE(R)-mediated intrasplicing at the first available exons downstream of iE(R), namely, alternative E5 and constitutive E6. Finally, analysis of heterologous acceptor contexts revealed a strong preference for nested 3' splice events at consecutive pairs of AG dinucleotides. Distal regulatory elements may control intrasplicing at a subset of alternative 3' splice sites in vertebrate pre-mRNAs to generate proteins with functional diversity.

Lack of protein 4.1G causes altered expression and localization of the cell adhesion molecule nectin-like 4 in testis and can cause male infertility.

Protein 4.1G is a member of the protein 4.1 family, which in general serves as adaptors linking transmembrane proteins to the cytoskeleton. 4.1G is thought to be widely expressed in many cells and tissues, but its function remains largely unknown. To explore the function of 4.1G in vivo, we generated 4.1G(-/-) mice and bred the mice in two backgrounds: C57BL/6 (B6) and 129/Sv (129) hybrids (B6-129) and inbred B6. Although the B6 4.1G(-/-) mice showed no obvious abnormalities, deficiency of 4.1G in B6-129 hybrids was associated with male infertility. Histological examinations of these 4.1G(-/-) mice revealed atrophy, impaired cell-cell contact and sloughing off of spermatogenic cells in seminiferous epithelium, and lack of mature spermatids in the epididymis. Ultrastructural examination revealed enlarged intercellular spaces between spermatogenic and Sertoli cells as well as the spermatid deformities. At the molecular level, 4.1G is associated with the nectin-like 4 (NECL4) adhesion molecule. Importantly, the expression of NECL4 was decreased, and the localization of NECL4 was altered in 4.1G(-/-) testis. Thus, our findings imply that 4.1G plays a role in spermatogenesis by mediating cell-cell adhesion between spermatogenic and Sertoli cells through its interaction with NECL4 on Sertoli cells. Additionally, the finding that infertility is present in B6-129 but not on the B6 background suggests the presence of a major modifier gene(s) that influences 4.1G function and is associated with male infertility.

Efficient in vivo manipulation of alternative pre-mRNA splicing events using antisense morpholinos in mice.

Mammalian pre-mRNA alternative splicing mechanisms are typically studied using artificial minigenes in cultured cells, conditions that may not accurately reflect the physiological context of either the pre-mRNA or the splicing machinery. Here, we describe a strategy to investigate splicing of normal endogenous full-length pre-mRNAs under physiological conditions in live mice. This approach employs antisense vivo-morpholinos (vMOs) to mask cis-regulatory sequences or to disrupt splicing factor expression, allowing functional evaluation of splicing regulation in vivo. We applied this strategy to gain mechanistic insight into alternative splicing events involving exons 2 and 16 (E2 and E16) that control the structure and function of cytoskeletal protein 4.1R. In several mouse tissues, inclusion of E16 was substantially inhibited by interfering with a splicing enhancer mechanism using a target protector morpholino that blocked Fox2-dependent splicing enhancers in intron 16 or a splice-blocking morpholino that disrupted Fox2 expression directly. For E2, alternative 3'-splice site choice is coordinated with upstream promoter use across a long 5'-intron such that E1A splices almost exclusively to the distal acceptor (E2dis). vMOs were used to test the in vivo relevance of a deep intron element previously proposed to determine use of E2dis via a two-step intrasplicing model. Two independent vMOs designed against this intronic regulatory element inhibited intrasplicing, robustly switching E1A splicing to the proximal acceptor (E2prox). This finding strongly supports the in vivo physiological relevance of intrasplicing. vMOs represent a powerful tool for alternative splicing studies in vivo and may facilitate exploration of alternative splicing networks in vivo.

Similarities and differences in the structure and function of 4.1G and 4.1R135, two protein 4.1 paralogues expressed in erythroid cells.

Membrane skeletal protein 4.1R is the prototypical member of a family of four highly paralogous proteins that include 4.1G, 4.1N and 4.1B. Two isoforms of 4.1R (4.1R135 and 4.1R80), as well as 4.1G, are expressed in erythroblasts during terminal differentiation, but only 4.1R80 is present in mature erythrocytes. Although the function of 4.1R isoforms in erythroid cells has been well characterized, there is little or no information on the function of 4.1G in these cells. In the present study, we performed detailed characterization of the interaction of 4.1G with various erythroid membrane proteins and the regulation of these interactions by calcium-saturated calmodulin. Like both isoforms of 4.1R, 4.1G bound to band 3, glycophorin C, CD44, p55 and calmodulin. While both 4.1G and 4.1R135 interact with similar affinity with CD44 and p55, there are significant differences in the affinity of their interaction with band 3 and glycophorin C. This difference in affinity is related to the non-conserved N-terminal headpiece region of the two proteins that is upstream of the 30 kDa membrane-binding domain that harbours the binding sites for the various membrane proteins. The headpiece region of 4.1G also contains a high-affinity calcium-dependent calmodulin-binding site that plays a key role in modulating its interaction with various membrane proteins. We suggest that expression of the two paralogues of protein 4.1 with different affinities for band 3 and glycophorin C is likely to play a role in assembly of these two membrane proteins during terminal erythroid differentiation.

Marked difference in membrane-protein-binding properties of the two isoforms of protein 4.1R expressed at early and late stages of erythroid differentiation.

Two major isoforms of protein 4.1R, a 135 kDa isoform (4.1R(135)) and an 80 kDa isoform (4.1R(80)), are expressed at distinct stages of terminal erythroid differentiation. The 4.1R(135) isoform is exclusively expressed in early erythroblasts and is not present in mature erythrocytes, whereas the 4.1R(80) isoform is expressed at late stages of erythroid differentiation and is the principal component of mature erythrocytes. These two isoforms differ in that the 4.1R(135) isoform includes an additional 209 amino acids designated as the HP (head-piece) at the N-terminus of 4.1R(80). In the present study, we performed detailed characterization of the interactions of the two 4.1R isoforms with various membrane-binding partners and identified several isoform-specific differences. Although both 4.1R(135) and 4.1R(80) bound to cytoplasmic domains of GPC (glycophorin C) and band 3, there is an order of magnitude difference in the binding affinities. Furthermore, although both isoforms bound CaM (calmodulin), the binding of 4.1R(80) was Ca2+-independent, whereas the binding of 4.1R(135) was strongly Ca2+-dependent. The HP of 4.1R(135) mediates this Ca2+-dependent binding. Ca2+-saturated CaM completely inhibited the binding of 4.1R(135) to GPC, whereas it strongly reduced the affinity of its binding to band 3. Interestingly, in spite of the absence of spectrin-binding activity, the 4.1R(135) isoform was able to assemble on to the membrane of early erythroblasts suggesting that its ability to bind to membrane proteins is sufficient for its membrane localization. These findings enable us to offer potential new insights into the differential contribution of 4.1R isoforms to membrane assembly during terminal erythroid differentiation.

Intrasplicing coordinates alternative first exons with alternative splicing in the protein 4.1R gene.

In the protein 4.1R gene, alternative first exons splice differentially to alternative 3' splice sites far downstream in exon 2'/2 (E2'/2). We describe a novel intrasplicing mechanism by which exon 1A (E1A) splices exclusively to the distal E2'/2 acceptor via two nested splicing reactions regulated by novel properties of exon 1B (E1B). E1B behaves as an exon in the first step, using its consensus 5' donor to splice to the proximal E2'/2 acceptor. A long region of downstream intron is excised, juxtaposing E1B with E2'/2 to generate a new composite acceptor containing the E1B branchpoint/pyrimidine tract and E2 distal 3' AG-dinucleotide. Next, the upstream E1A splices over E1B to this distal acceptor, excising the remaining intron plus E1B and E2' to form mature E1A/E2 product. We mapped branchpoints for both intrasplicing reactions and demonstrated that mutation of the E1B 5' splice site or branchpoint abrogates intrasplicing. In the 4.1R gene, intrasplicing ultimately determines N-terminal protein structure and function. More generally, intrasplicing represents a new mechanism by which alternative promoters can be coordinated with downstream alternative splicing.

Stomatin and sensory neuron mechanotransduction.

Somatic sensory neurons of the dorsal root ganglia are necessary for a large part of our mechanosensory experience. However, we only have a good knowledge of the molecules required for mechanotransduction in simple invertebrates such as the nematode Caenorhabiditis elegans. In C. elegans, a number of so-called mec genes have been isolated that are required for the transduction of body touch. One such gene, mec-2 codes for an integral membrane protein of the stomatin family, a large group of genes with a stomatin homology domain. Using stomatin null mutant mice, we have tested the hypothesis that the founding member of this family, stomatin might play a role in the transduction of mechanical stimuli by primary sensory neurons. We used the in vitro mouse skin nerve preparation to record from a large population of low- and high-threshold mechanoreceptors with myelinated A-fiber (n = 553) and unmyelinated C-fiber (n = 157) axons. One subtype of mechanoreceptor, the d-hair receptor, which is a rapidly adapting mechanoreceptor, had reduced sensitivity to mechanical stimulation in the absence of stomatin. Other cutaneous mechanoreceptors, including nociceptive C-fibers were not affected by the absence of a functional stomatin protein. Patch-clamp analysis of presumptive D-hair receptor mechanoreceptive neurons, which were identified by a characteristic rosette morphology in culture, showed no change in membrane excitability in the absence of the stomatin protein. We conclude that stomatin is required for normal mechanotransduction in a subpopulation of vertebrate sensory neurons.

Differential domain evolution and complex RNA processing in a family of paralogous EPB41 (protein 4.1) genes facilitate expression of diverse tissue-specific isoforms.

The EPB41 (protein 4.1) genes epitomize the resourcefulness of the mammalian genome to encode a complex proteome from a small number of genes. By utilizing alternative transcriptional promoters and tissue-specific alternative pre-mRNA splicing, EPB41, EPB41L2, EPB41L3, and EPB41L1 encode a diverse array of structural adapter proteins. Comparative genomic and transcript analysis of these 140- to 240-kb genes indicates several unusual features: differential evolution of highly conserved exons encoding known functional domains interspersed with unique exons whose size and sequence variations contribute substantially to intergenic diversity; alternative first exons, most of which map far upstream of the coding regions; and complex tissue-specific alternative pre-mRNA splicing that facilitates synthesis of functionally different complements of 4.1 proteins in various cells. Understanding the splicing regulatory networks that control protein 4.1 expression will be critical to a full appreciation of the many roles of 4.1 proteins in normal cell biology and their proposed roles in human cancer.

Putative tumor suppressor protein 4.1B is differentially expressed in kidney and brain via alternative promoters and 5' alternative splicing.

Protein 4.1B has been reported as a tumor suppressor in brain, but not in kidney, despite high expression in both tissues. Here we demonstrate that N-terminal variability in kidney and brain 4.1B isoforms arises through an unusual coupling of RNA processing events in the 5' region of the gene. We describe two transcriptional promoters at far upstream alternative exons 1A and 1B, and show that their respective transcripts splice differentially to exon 2'/2 in a manner that determines mRNA coding capacity. The consequence of this unique processing is that exon 1B transcripts initiate translation at AUG1 (in exon 2') and encode larger 4.1B isoforms with an N-terminal extension; exon 1A transcripts initiate translation at AUG2 (in exon 4) and encode smaller 4.1B isoforms. Tissue-specific differences in promoter utilization may thus explain the abundance of larger 4.1B isoforms in brain but not in kidney. In cell studies, differentiation of PC12 cells was accompanied by translocation of large protein 4.1B isoforms into the nucleus. We propose that first exon specification is coupled to downstream splicing events, generating 4.1B isoforms with diverse roles in kidney and brain physiology, and potentially unique functions in cell proliferation and tumor suppression.

Alternative 5' exons and differential splicing regulate expression of protein 4.1R isoforms with distinct N-termini.

Among the alternative pre-mRNA splicing events that characterize protein 4.1R gene expression, one involving exon 2' plays a critical role in regulating translation initiation and N-terminal protein structure. Exon 2' encompasses translation initiation site AUG1 and is located between alternative splice acceptor sites at the 5' end of exon 2; its inclusion or exclusion from mature 4.1R mRNA regulates expression of longer or shorter isoforms of 4.1R protein, respectively. The current study reports unexpected complexity in the 5' region of the 4.1R gene that directly affects alternative splicing of exon 2'. Identified far upstream of exon 2 in both mouse and human genomes were 3 mutually exclusive alternative 5' exons, designated 1A, 1B, and 1C; all 3 are associated with strong transcriptional promoters in the flanking genomic sequence. Importantly, exons 1A and 1B splice differentially with respect to exon 2', generating transcripts with different 5' ends and distinct N-terminal protein coding capacity. Exon 1A-type transcripts splice so as to exclude exon 2' and therefore utilize the downstream AUG2 for translation of 80-kDa 4.1R protein, whereas exon 1B transcripts include exon 2' and initiate at AUG1 to synthesize 135-kDa isoforms. RNA blot analyses revealed that 1A transcripts increase in abundance in late erythroblasts, consistent with the previously demonstrated up-regulation of 80-kDa 4.1R during terminal erythroid differentiation. Together, these results suggest that synthesis of structurally distinct 4.1R protein isoforms in various cell types is regulated by a novel mechanism requiring coordination between upstream transcription initiation events and downstream alternative splicing events.

Ribosomal protein S19 expression during erythroid differentiation.

The gene encoding ribosomal protein S19 (RPS19) has been shown to be mutated in 25% of the patients affected by Diamond-Blackfan anemia (DBA), a congenital erythroblastopenia. As the role of RPS19 in erythropoiesis is still to be defined, we performed studies on RPS19 expression during terminal erythroid differentiation. Comparative analysis of the genomic sequences of human and mouse RPS19 genes enabled the identification of 4 conserved sequence elements in the 5' region. Characterization of transcriptional elements allowed the identification of the promoter in the human RPS19 gene and the localization of a strong regulatory element in the third conserved sequence element. By Northern blot and Western blot analyses of murine splenic erythroblasts infected with the anemia-inducing strain Friend virus (FAV cells), RPS19 mRNA and protein expression were shown to decrease during terminal erythroid differentiation. We anticipate that these findings will contribute to further development of our understanding of the contribution of RPS19 to erythropoiesis.