Strategic restoration planning for land birds in the Colorado River Delta, Mexico.

Ecological restoration is an essential strategy for mitigating the current biodiversity crisis, yet restoration actions are costly. We used systematic conservation planning principles to design an approach that prioritizes restoration sites for birds and tested it in a riparian forest restoration program in the Colorado River Delta. Restoration goals were to maximize the abundance and diversity of 15 priority birds with a variety of habitat preferences. We built abundance models for priority birds based on the current landscape, and predicted bird distributions and relative abundances under a scenario of complete riparian forest restoration throughout our study area. Then, we used Zonation conservation planning software to rank this restored landscape based on core areas for all priority birds. The locations with the highest ranks represented the highest priorities for restoration and were located throughout the river reach. We optimized how much of the available landscape to restore by simulating restoration of the top 10-90% of ranked sites in 10% intervals. We found that total diversity was maximized when 40% of the landscape was restored, and mean relative abundance was maximized when 80% of the landscape was restored. The results suggest that complete restoration is not optimal for this community of priority birds and restoration of approximately 60% of the landscape would provide a balance between maximum relative abundance and diversity. Subsequent planning efforts will combine our results with an assessment of restoration costs to provide further decision support for the restoration-siting process. Our approach can be applied to any landscape-scale restoration program to improve the return on investment of limited economic resources for restoration.

In vivo antimalarial activity of self-nanoemulsifying drug delivery systems containing ethanolic extract of Morinda lucida in combination with other Congolese plants extracts

Abstract Morinda lucida leaves are largely used by Congolese traditional healers for the treatment of uncomplicated malaria. The antimalarial activity of their ethanolic extract has been confirmed both in vitro and in vivo. However, the development of relevant formulations for potential clinical application is hampered since the active ingredients contained in this extract exhibit poor water solubility and low oral bioavailability. Hence, this work aims not only to develop self-nanoemulsifying drug delivery systems (SNEDDSs) for oral delivery of the ethanolic extract of Morinda lucida (ML) but also to evaluate its oral antimalarial activity alone and in combination with other Congolese ethanolic plant extracts (Alstonia congensis, Garcinia kola, Lantana camara, Morinda morindoides or Newbouldia laevis). Based on the solubility of these different extracts in various excipients, SNEDDS preconcentrates were prepared, and 200 mg/g of each plant extract were suspended in these formulations. The 4-day suppressive Peter's test revealed a significant parasite growth inhibiting effect for all the extract-based SNEDDS (from 55.0 to 82.4 %) at 200 mg/kg. These activities were higher than those of their corresponding ethanolic suspensions given orally at the same dose (p<0.05). The combination therapy of MLSNEDDS with other extract-based SNEDDS exhibited remarkable chemosuppression, ranging from 74.3 % to 95.8 % (for 100 + 100 mg/kg) and 86.7 % to 95.5 % (for 200 + 200 mg/kg/day). In regard to these findings, SNEDDS suspension may constitute a promising approach for oral delivery of ML alone or in combination with other antimalarial plants.

Preliminary validation of the Dental Clinical Learning Environment Instrument in a Brazilian dental school.

INTRODUCTION: This study aimed to perform a preliminary validation of the Dental Clinical Learning Environment Instrument (DECLEI) in a Brazilian dental school. MATERIAL AND METHODS: Dental Clinical Learning Environment Instrument was translated into Brazilian-Portuguese, and Brazilian DECLEI's items relevance and content validity were assessed using the content validity index (CVI). DECLEI was then distributed to 155 Brazilian undergraduate dental students attending the 7th and 8th semester of dental studies. Principal Component Analysis (PCA) was used as an initial exploration of the Brazilian DECLEI's internal structure. Item-total correlations for the remaining items were calculated to identify items with poor discrimination coefficients. The internal consistency reliability for the final set of 17 items was calculated using Cronbach's alpha coefficient. The sensitivity of the instrument to measure differences between groups regarding year in dental school, race and sex was also assessed. RESULTS: The CVI was ≥0.80 for all 24 items of the Brazilian DECLEI indicating that all items were relevant to the local culture. Principal Components Analysis (PCA) provided evidence of a single dominant component containing 17 items (Cronbach's α = .86), and all 17 items met the benchmark of acceptable item-total correlation. Significant differences were found only when comparing 7th- and 8th-semester students. CONCLUSIONS: Dental Clinical Learning Environment Instrument has the potential to be used as a reliable instrument to measure clinical learning environments for Brazilian dental students.

Translation and preliminary validation of an ageism scale for dental students in Brazil (ASDS-Braz).

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVE: Ageism is a major barrier for age-appropriate care. The aim of this study was to translate and perform a preliminary validation of an ageism scale for dental students (ASDS) in Brazil (ASDS-Braz). METHODS: The 27-item original ageism scale was translated from English into Brazilian Portuguese. A panel of five Brazilian dental educators revised the scale to establish content validity. The translated version was completed by 156 dental students in the Federal University of Pelotas in Brazil. Principal component analysis, internal consistency reliability and discriminant validity were estimated. RESULTS: All items in the Brazilian Portuguese version received a content validity index score ≥0.80 indicating that they were relevant to the topic. The principal component analysis produced a 12-item scale with three components that accounted for 51% of the overall variance. The first component contained six items associated with a negative view of older adults; the second component contained three items dealing with the complexity of providing care for older adults; and the third component contained three items associated with a positive view of older people. Discriminant validity did not show any differences related to demographic factors, the semester of studies and history of living with older people. CONCLUSIONS: The preliminary validation of the ASDS-Braz produced a 12-item scale with three components with acceptable validity and reliability. Future research in a larger, multi-institutional sample is now warranted.

Biotechnological approaches for cocoa waste management: A review.

Cocoa beans provide raw materials for global food industries valued in excess of $47 billion in world exportations. Through on-farm processing, about 80% of cocoa fruit is discarded as residual biomass, including cocoa pod husks, cocoa bean shells and cocoa sweatings. Farmers routinely discard these residues/by-products during the initial cocoa bean processing steps, occupying vast areas and raising social and environmental concerns. Alternatively, this residual biomass is used as cocoa tree fertilizer. However, its disposal is performed without proper treatment, resulting in putrid odors and plant diseases. Recently, some studies have reported the use of cocoa by-products in the production of high-value-adding molecules with potential applications in the food, pharmaceutical and cosmetic industries. In this aspect, biotechnological approaches have been shown to be a viable alternative for the transformation of this residual biomass into fine products. This article reviews the biotechnological approaches implemented for the management and exploitation of cocoa by-product. Related topics on cocoa production and residual biomass generation, sustainability and valorization of cocoa chain are addressed and discussed.

C5 Motor Palsy After Single- and Multi-level Anterior Cervical Diskectomy and Fusion: A Retrospective Review.

INTRODUCTION: Postoperative C5 nerve root palsy is a known complication after cervical surgery. The effect of increasing number of levels fused on the prevalence of C5 palsy after anterior cervical diskectomy and fusion (ACDF) is unclear. METHODS: Medical records of ACDF patients that included the C4-5 level at one institution were retrospectively reviewed. C5 palsy was defined as motor decline of the deltoid and/or biceps brachii muscle function by at least 1 level on standard manual muscle testing. RESULTS: A total of 196 patients met the inclusion criteria, with no significant differences noted between groups undergoing single- or multi-level ACDF. The overall C5 palsy rate was 5.1%. Palsy rates were not statistically significant based on the number of levels fused. Six of the 10 patients with C5 palsy had complete recovery of motor strength, whereas 2 patients had at least some level of strength recovery. CONCLUSION: The overall C5 palsy rate was 5.1% for all patients undergoing up to four-level ACDF. The rate of postoperative motor decline was lowest in the patients undergoing two-level ACDF and highest in the single-level group, but this finding did not reach statistical significance. The prognosis for strength recovery by final follow-up is excellent. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Level III, Case-control.

Surgical Strategies to Prevent Adjacent Segment Disease in the Cervical Spine.

The most popular approach to treating symptomatic cervical disk disease is anterior cervical discectomy and fusion. Although this procedure has significant long-term clinical success, it is associated with progressive adjacent segment degeneration with an annual incidence of ∼3%. Total disk arthroplasty was designed as an alternative to fusion that could preserve segmental motion at the operative level and potentially delay or prevent adjacent-level breakdown. The etiology of adjacent segment pathology (ASP) is multifactorial, and it is likely that most cases of ASP are unavoidable. When attempting to surgically prevent ASP, it is important to consider nonfusion alternatives, be judicious in one's level selection, and attempt to restore sagittal alignment. When ASP becomes a clinical problem, it is important to have an algorithm for how best to treat it.

Trypanosoma rangeli is phylogenetically closer to Old World trypanosomes than to Trypanosoma cruzi.

Trypanosoma rangeli and Trypanosoma cruzi are generalist trypanosomes sharing a wide range of mammalian hosts; they are transmitted by triatomine bugs, and are the only trypanosomes infecting humans in the Neotropics. Their origins, phylogenetic relationships, and emergence as human parasites have long been subjects of interest. In the present study, taxon-rich analyses (20 trypanosome species from bats and terrestrial mammals) using ssrRNA, glycosomal glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (gGAPDH), heat shock protein-70 (HSP70) and Spliced Leader RNA sequences, and multilocus phylogenetic analyses using 11 single copy genes from 15 selected trypanosomes, provide increased resolution of relationships between species and clades, strongly supporting two main sister lineages: lineage Schizotrypanum, comprising T. cruzi and bat-restricted trypanosomes, and Tra[Tve-Tco] formed by T. rangeli, Trypanosoma vespertilionis and Trypanosoma conorhini clades. Tve comprises European T. vespertilionis and African T. vespertilionis-like of bats and bat cimicids characterised in the present study and Trypanosoma sp. Hoch reported in monkeys and herein detected in bats. Tco included the triatomine-transmitted tropicopolitan T. conorhini from rats and the African NanDoum1 trypanosome of civet (carnivore). Consistent with their very close relationships, Tra[Tve-Tco] species shared highly similar Spliced Leader RNA structures that were highly divergent from those of Schizotrypanum. In a plausible evolutionary scenario, a bat trypanosome transmitted by cimicids gave origin to the deeply rooted Tra[Tve-Tco] and Schizotrypanum lineages, and bat trypanosomes of diverse genetic backgrounds jumped to new hosts. A long and independent evolutionary history of T. rangeli more related to Old World trypanosomes from bats, rats, monkeys and civets than to Schizotrypanum spp., and the adaptation of these distantly related trypanosomes to different niches of shared mammals and vectors, is consistent with the marked differences in transmission routes, life-cycles and host-parasite interactions, resulting in T. cruzi (but not T. rangeli) being pathogenic to humans.

Strategies for the Prevention and Treatment of Surgical Site Infection in the Lumbar Spine.

Surgical site infection (SSI) following spine surgery can be devastating for both the patient and the surgeon. It leads to significant morbidity and associated health care costs, from readmissions, reoperations, and subsequent poor clinical outcomes. Complications associated with SSI following spine surgery include pseudarthrosis, neurological deterioration, sepsis, and death. Its management can be very challenging. The diagnosis of SSI involves the interpretation of combined clinical, laboratory, and occasionally radiologic findings. Most infections can be treated with an appropriate course of antibiotics and bracing if required. Surgical intervention is usually reserved for infections resistant to medical management, the need for open biopsy/culture, evolving spinal instability or deformity, and neurologic deficit or deterioration. A thorough knowledge of associated risk factors is required and patients should be stratified for risk preoperatively. The multifaceted approach of risk stratification, early diagnosis and effective treatment, is essential for successful prevention and effective treatment and crucial for a satisfactory outcome.

Contaminants in tropical island streams and their biota.

Environmental contamination is problematic for tropical islands due to their typically dense human populations and competing land and water uses. The Caribbean island of Puerto Rico (USA) has a long history of anthropogenic chemical use, and its human population density is among the highest globally, providing a model environment to study contaminant impacts on tropical island stream ecosystems. Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons, historic-use chlorinated pesticides, current-use pesticides, Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs), and metals (mercury, cadmium, copper, lead, nickel, zinc, and selenium) were quantified in the habitat and biota of Puerto Rico streams and assessed in relation to land-use patterns and toxicological thresholds. Water, sediment, and native fish and shrimp species were sampled in 13 rivers spanning broad watershed land-use characteristics during 2009-2010. Contrary to expectations, freshwater stream ecosystems in Puerto Rico were not severely polluted, likely due to frequent flushing flows and reduced deposition associated with recurring flood events. Notable exceptions of contamination were nickel in sediment within three agricultural watersheds (range 123-336ppm dry weight) and organic contaminants (PCBs, organochlorine pesticides) and mercury in urban landscapes. At an urban site, PCBs in several fish species (Mountain Mullet Agonostomus monticola [range 0.019-0.030ppm wet weight] and American Eel Anguilla rostrata [0.019-0.031ppm wet weight]) may pose human health hazards, with concentrations exceeding the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) consumption limit for 1 meal/month. American Eel at the urban site also contained dieldrin (range < detection-0.024ppm wet weight) that exceeded the EPA maximum allowable consumption limit. The Bigmouth Sleeper Gobiomorous dormitor, an important piscivorus sport fish, accumulated low levels of organic contaminants in edible muscle tissue (due to its low lipid content) and may be most suitable for human consumption island-wide; only mercury at one site (an urban location) exceeded EPA's consumption limit of 3 meals/month for this species. These results comprise the first comprehensive island-wide contaminant assessment of Puerto Rico streams and biota and provide natural resource and public health agencies here and in similar tropical islands elsewhere with information needed to guide ecosystem and fisheries conservation and management and human health risk assessment.

Risk Factors for and Complications After Surgical Delay in Elective Single-Level Lumbar Fusion.

STUDY DESIGN: Retrospective cohort. OBJECTIVE: To assess the incidence of and risk factors for delay of elective lumbar fusion surgery, as well as medical and surgical complications associated with surgical delay. SUMMARY OF BACKGROUND DATA: Lumbar fusion is a well-established treatment for patients with degenerative spondylolisthesis with stenosis who have failed conservative management. Rarely, patients admitted for elective lumbar fusion may experience a delay in surgery past the day of admission. The incidence of, and risk factors for, delay of elective lumbar fusion surgery and the complications associated therewith have never been previously evaluated. METHODS: We retrospectively reviewed the ACS-NSQIP registry utilizing Current Procedural Terminology (CPT) codes 22612, 22558, 22630, and 22633 to identify all patients undergoing a single level spinal fusion. The data were then subdivided into cohorts consisting of patients with and without surgical delay. Demographic information, preoperative risk factors for delay, as well as intraoperative and postoperative complications were compared between the groups. RESULTS: We identified 2758 (5.46%) patients as experiencing a delay before lumbar fusion. Multivariate analysis was then performed and identified male sex, American Society of Anesthesiologists classes 3 and 4, and chronic steroid use as risk factors increasing the rate of surgical delay. Multiple complication rates were also significantly higher in the delayed group, including an almost 10-fold increase in mortality rate (0.2% vs. 1.9%, respectively, P < 0.001). CONCLUSION: Delays in elective surgery can affect medical system resource utilization, increasing costs and leading to worse patient outcomes. Patients with chronic steroid use and higher American Society of Anesthesiologists class may be at risk for surgical delay in lumbar fusion beyond the day of admission, and are at increased risk for significant complications postoperatively. Thorough medical evaluation and preoperative optimization may be indicated for these patients. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: 4.

Spine Registries: Where Do We Stand?

To curb the unsustainable rise in health care costs, novel payment models are being explored which focus on value rather than volume. Underlying this reform is an accurate understanding of costs and outcomes. The Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act, the Institute of Medicine, and the Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality have specifically advocated for the use of registries to help define the real-world effectiveness of surgical interventions to help guide health care reform. Registries can help define value by documenting surgical efficacy, and specifically by reporting patient-based outcome measures. Over the past 10 years, several spine registries have been initiated and some others have expanded. These are providing a repository of evidence for surgical value. Herein, we will review the components of a well-designed registry and provide examples of such registries and their impact on health care delivery.

Randomized double-blinded study comparing medical treatment versus iliac vein stenting in chronic venous disease

OBJECTIVE:Iliac vein stenting has emerged as the procedure of choice in the treatment of iliac vein obstruction (IVO). However, clinical outcomes have never been studied by a randomized clinical trial. Our purpose was to compare medical and endovascular treatment results in symptomatic chronic venous disease (CVD) patients with significant IVO documented by intravascular ultrasound (IVUS).METHODS:Patients with Clinical, Etiology, Anatomy, and Pathophysiology clinical class C3 to C6 and a visual analog scale for pain (VAS pain) score >3 were considered eligible. We randomly assigned limbs with ≥50% IVO on IVUS to undergo medical treatment alone or medical treatment plus iliac vein stenting. The patient and clinical physician were blinded. Primary outcomes included change from baseline in VAS pain score, Venous Clinical Severity Score, and 36-Item Short Form Health Survey quality of life questionnaire. Secondary outcomes included stent integrity, migration, and patency rates at 6 months.

New insights from Gorongosa National Park and Niassa National Reserve of Mozambique increasing the genetic diversity of Trypanosoma vivax and Trypanosoma vivax-like in tsetse flies, wild ungulates and livestock from East Africa.

BACKGROUND: Trypanosoma (Duttonella) vivax is a major pathogen of livestock in Africa and South America (SA), and genetic studies limited to small sampling suggest greater diversity in East Africa (EA) compared to both West Africa (WA) and SA. METHODS: Multidimensional scaling and phylogenetic analyses of 112 sequences of the glycosomal glyceraldehyde phosphate dehydrogenase (gGAPDH) gene and 263 sequences of the internal transcribed spacer of rDNA (ITS rDNA) were performed to compare trypanosomes from tsetse flies from Gorongosa National Park and Niassa National Reserve of Mozambique (MZ), wild ungulates and livestock from EA, and livestock isolates from WA and SA. RESULTS: Multidimensional scaling (MDS) supported Tvv (T. vivax) and TvL (T. vivax-like) evolutionary lineages: 1) Tvv comprises two main groups, TvvA/B (all SA and WA isolates plus some isolates from EA) and TvvC/D (exclusively from EA). The network revealed five ITS-genotypes within Tvv: Tvv1 (WA/EA isolates), Tvv2 (SA) and Tvv3-5 (EA). EA genotypes of Tvv ranged from highly related to largely different from WA/SA genotypes. 2) TvL comprises two gGAPDH-groups formed exclusively by EA sequences, TvLA (Tanzania/Kenya) and TvLB-D (MZ). This lineage contains more than 11 ITS-genotypes, seven forming the lineage TvL-Gorongosa that diverged from T. vivax Y486 enough to be identified as another species of the subgenus Duttonella. While gGAPDH sequences were fundamental for classification at the subgenus, major evolutionary lineages and species levels, ITS rDNA sequences permitted identification of known and novel genotypes. CONCLUSIONS: Our results corroborate a remarkable diversity of Duttonella trypanosomes in EA, especially in wildlife conservation areas, compared to the moderate diversity in WA. Surveys in wilderness areas in WA may reveal greater diversity. Biogeographical and phylogenetic data point to EA as the place of origin, diversification and spread of Duttonella trypanosomes across Africa, providing relevant insights towards the understanding of T. vivax evolutionary history.

The Evolution of Current Research Impact Metrics: From Bibliometrics to Altmetrics?

The prestige of publication has been based on traditional citation metrics, most commonly journal impact factor. However, the Internet has radically changed the speed, flow, and sharing of medical information. Furthermore, the explosion of social media, along with development of popular professional and scientific websites and blogs, has led to the need for alternative metrics, known as altmetrics, to quantify the wider impact of research. We explore the evolution of current research impact metrics and examine the evolving role of altmetrics in measuring the wider impact of research. We suggest that altmetrics used in research evaluation should be part of an informed peer-review process such as traditional metrics. Moreover, results based on altmetrics must not lead to direct decision making about research, but instead, should be used to assist experts in making decisions. Finally, traditional and alternative metrics should complement, not replace, each other in the peer-review process.

Understanding Traditional Research Impact Metrics.

Traditionally, the success of a researcher has been judged by the number of publications he or she has published in peer-review, indexed, high impact journals. However, to quantify the impact of research in the wider scientific community, a number of traditional metrics have been used, including Impact Factor, SCImago Journal Rank, Eigenfactor Score, and Article Influence Score. This article attempts to provide a broad overview of the main traditional impact metrics that have been used to assess scholarly output and research impact. We determine that there is no perfect all-encompassing metric to measure research impact, and, in the modern era, no single traditional metric is capable of accommodating all facets of research impact. Academics and researchers should be aware of the advantages and limitations of traditional metrics and should be judicious when selecting any metrics for an objective assessment of scholarly output and research impact.

Adaptive capabilities and fitness consequences associated with pollution exposure in fish.

Many fish populations are exposed to harmful levels of chemical pollution and selection pressures associated with these exposures have led to the evolution of tolerance. Our understanding of the physiological basis for these adaptations is limited, but they are likely to include processes involved with the absorption, distribution, metabolism and/or excretion of the target chemical. Other potential adaptive mechanisms include enhancements in antioxidant responses, an increased capacity for DNA and/or tissue repair and alterations to the life cycle of fish that enable earlier reproduction. Analysis of single-nucleotide polymorphism frequencies has shown that tolerance to hydrocarbon pollutants in both marine and estuarine fish species involves alteration in the expression of the xenobiotic metabolism enzyme CYP1A. In this review, we present novel data showing also that variants of the CYP1A gene have been under selection in guppies living in Trinidadian rivers heavily polluted with crude oil. Potential costs associated with these adaptations could reduce fitness in unpolluted water conditions. Integrating knowledge of local adaptation to pollution is an important future consideration in conservation practices such as for successful restocking, and improving connectivity within river systems.This article is part of the themed issue 'Human influences on evolution, and the ecological and societal consequences'.

Mobility Status as a Predictor of Obesity, Physical Activity, and Screen Time Use among Children Aged 5-11 Years in the United States.

OBJECTIVE: To examine physical activity participation, screen time habits, and the prevalence of overweight/obesity among children in the general population with mobility limitations and those enrolled in special education services. STUDY DESIGN: An observational, cross-sectional analysis of the 2011-2014 National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, a representative sample of the US population. Mobility limitations, special education services utilization, proxy-reported physical activity and screen time, and overweight/obesity status were assessed in children aged 5-11 years. RESULTS: Boys with mobility limitations were less likely to meet physical activity guidelines (≥60 minutes daily) compared with those with no limitations (58.1% vs 74.4%, adjusted F = 4.61, P = .04). In a logistic regression model, boys with mobility limitations had significantly lower odds (0.42, 95% CI 0.20-0.86) of meeting physical activity guidelines. The prevalence of children meeting screen time recommendations (≤2 hours daily) among those receiving special education services (42.4%) was lower than children not receiving services (53.2%; adjusted F = 8.87, P < .01). In a logistic regression model, children receiving special education services showed a trend toward significantly lower odds (0.74, 95% CI 0.54-1.03, P = .07) of meeting screen time recommendations. No statistically significant differences for overweight/obesity were found. CONCLUSIONS: Clear differences were present in physical activity between boys with and without mobility limitations. Furthermore, children receiving special education services demonstrated a lower likelihood of meeting screen time recommendations. Children with disabilities may benefit from targeted interventions aimed at increasing physical activity while decreasing screen time.

New insights into the evolution of the Trypanosoma cruzi clade provided by a new trypanosome species tightly linked to Neotropical Pteronotus bats and related to an Australian lineage of trypanosomes.

BACKGROUND: Bat trypanosomes are implicated in the evolution of the T. cruzi clade, which harbours most African, European and American trypanosomes from bats and other trypanosomes from African, Australian and American terrestrial mammals, including T. cruzi and T. rangeli, the agents of the American human trypanosomiasis. The diversity of bat trypanosomes globally is still poorly understood, and the common ancestor, geographical origin, and evolution of species within the T. cruzi clade remain largely unresolved. METHODS: Trypanosome sequences were obtained from cultured parasites and from museum archived liver/blood samples of bats captured from Guatemala (Central America) to the Brazilian Atlantic Coast. Phylogenies were inferred using Small Subunit (SSU) rRNA, glycosomal glyceraldehyde phosphate dehydrogenase (gGAPDH), and Spliced Leader (SL) RNA genes. RESULTS: Here, we described Trypanosoma wauwau n. sp. from Pteronotus bats (Mormoopidae) placed in the T. cruzi clade, then supporting the bat-seeding hypothesis whereby the common ancestor of this clade likely was a bat trypanosome. T. wauwau was sister to the clade T. spp-Neobats from phyllostomid bats forming an assemblage of trypanosome species exclusively of Noctilionoidea Neotropical bats, which was sister to an Australian clade of trypanosomes from indigenous marsupials and rodents, which possibly evolved from a bat trypanosome. T. wauwau was found in 26.5% of the Pteronotus bats examined, and phylogeographical analysis evidenced the wide geographical range of this species. To date, this species was not detected in other bats, including those that were sympatric or shared shelters with Pteronotus. T. wauwau did not develop within mammalian cells, and was not infective to Balb/c mice or to triatomine vectors of T. cruzi and T. rangeli. CONCLUSIONS: Trypanosoma wauwau n. sp. was linked to Pteronotus bats. The positioning of the clade T. wauwau/T.spp-Neobats as the most basal Neotropical bat trypanosomes and closely related to an Australian lineage of trypanosomes provides additional evidence that the T. cruzi clade trypanosomes likely evolved from bats, and were dispersed in bats within and between continents from ancient to unexpectedly recent times.