Reliability of Measuring Geniohyoid Cross-Sectional Area with B-Mode Ultrasound.

B-mode ultrasound is a safe noninvasive procedure that has been used to characterize aspects of the oropharyngeal swallow. The submental suprahyoid muscles are often investigated with ultrasound because of their contributions to hyolaryngeal elevation. There are several techniques for positioning the ultrasound transducer in the coronal plane, however, there is limited research on how reliability of measurement of the cross-sectional area (CSA) of the geniohyoid differs across transducer placement technique. This study examined three methods of transducer placement in the coronal plane by two examiners to determine the reliability of measurement of CSA of the geniohyoid muscle. Forty healthy adults participated in the study. Each participant's geniohyoid muscles were imaged using B-mode ultrasound under three transducer placement conditions in the coronal plane by two examiners. Geniohyoid CSA was measured from each ultrasound image. A three-way mixed-methods ANOVA was used to determine whether there were significant differences in geniohyoid CSA among transducer position conditions, trials, and examiners. There were significant differences among the transducer placement conditions, indicating that each condition was measuring a different portion of the muscle. There were no significant differences among repeated trials nor between examiners within each method of transducer placement. All three conditions of transducer placement were reliable at measuring geniohyoid CSA across trials and examiners. This study emphasizes the need for consistency of placement, whichever method is selected. It also highlights the need for researchers to provide a precise description of methods for positioning the transducer so that placement is reproducible.

Ultrasonography as Biofeedback to Increase Muscle Activation During the Mendelsohn Maneuver in Healthy Adults.

The Mendelsohn Maneuver (MM) is a therapeutic strategy that targets reduced laryngeal elevation. Both clinicians and clients identify the MM as one of the more difficult interventions to teach and learn. The purpose of this study was to examine the effect of applying real-time ultrasound as visual feedback in teaching the MM to healthy adults. Twenty-four healthy adults were randomized to two-parallel groups. The standard care group (control group) received verbal instruction, verbal reinforcement, and tactile cueing while practicing the maneuver. The experimental group received the same instruction with additional real-time ultrasound as visual biofeedback. Participants completed a single session which consisted of baseline assessment, training, and post-training assessment. Outcomes were submental surface electromyography (sEMG) signal duration, maximum amplitude, and area under the curve. Statistical analysis revealed that training with feedback significantly increased submental sEMG activity during the MM; however, the addition of ultrasound as biofeedback did not significantly increase muscle activation when performing the MM over verbal instruction with verbal/tactile feedback alone. Both groups demonstrated significantly greater muscle activity measured by sEMG when applying the MM. Although the current study did not indicate that adding ultrasound biofeedback was superior to traditional training alone in teaching healthy adults to perform the MM, it does support the clinical use of biofeedback tools for learning swallowing maneuvers. Ultrasound may be a biofeedback option for people with language deficits or differences to learn a swallowing maneuver. Further studies are required to determine the clinical application of ultrasound as biofeedback on people with dysphagia.

Using Ultrasound to Document the Effects of Expiratory Muscle Strength Training (EMST) on the Geniohyoid Muscle.

Expiratory muscle strength training (EMST) is an exercise program designed to strengthen the muscles of expiration by increasing expiratory load during breathing exercises using either resistive or pressure threshold devices. Previous research has shown that EMST may increase submental suprahyoid muscle activity as measured with surface electromyography. The impact of EMST on submental muscles is of interest to those who treat dysphagia. The purpose of this study was to determine whether the cross-sectional area of the geniohyoid muscle changes as observed with ultrasound during a 5-week EMST program performed at 75% of maximum expiratory strength using the EMST150 device in healthy adults. Ten healthy adults participated in the 5-week program. Maximum expiratory pressure (MEP) and cross-sectional area of the geniohyoid muscle were measured weekly. Geniohyoid cross-sectional area was measured from ultrasound images recorded in the coronal plane. Repeated Measures ANOVA was used to determine whether there were significant changes among the dependent variables over the study period. Both MEP and geniohyoid area increased significantly in response to a 5-week program of EMST. EMST in healthy adults is effective at strengthening the geniohyoid muscle as reflected by significantly increased cross-sectional area measured with B-mode ultrasound. This is the first study to document weekly change in muscle morphology as a result of EMST. Increasing geniohyoid muscle mass and consequent strength through a program of EMST may be beneficial for persons with pharyngeal stage dysphagia resulting from reduced hyolaryngeal elevation, reduced laryngeal closure, or reduced UES opening.

Dose-volume relationship for laryngeal substructures and aspiration in patients with locally advanced head-and-neck cancer.

BACKGROUND: Literature has shown a significant relationship between radiation dose to the larynx and swallowing disorders. We prospectively studied the dose-volume relationship for larynx substructures and aspiration. METHODS: Forty nine patients with stage III/IV head-and-neck (H&N) squamous cell carcinoma were prospectively enrolled in this IRB-approved, federally funded study. All patients received IMRT-based chemoradiation therapy (CRT) and were scheduled for videofluorography (VFG) prior to CRT and at 3, 6, 9, 12, and 24 months post-CRT. Twelve laryngeal substructures were contoured in each patient: thyroid cartilage, cricoid cartilage, total epiglottis, suprahyoid epiglottis, infrahyoid epiglottis, total larynx, supraglottic larynx, subglottic larynx, glottic larynx, arytenoids, aryepiglottic (AE) folds, and glossoepiglottic fold. After exclusions, 29 patients were included in the final analysis. Incidence of aspiration at 1 year following CRT was correlated with dose-volume data to laryngeal substructures using logistic regression. RESULTS: The median age was 54 years with 79% being non-smokers. Tumor sites included oropharynx (22), unknown primary (6), and hypopharynx (1). One year following CRT, 10/29 (34%) showed aspiration on VFG. Dose to the AE folds showed the highest correlation with aspiration at 12 months and was significant on multivariate analysis (p = 0.025). A mean dose cutpoint of 6500 cGy or higher to the AE folds was associated with an increased risk of aspiration at 1 year [positive likelihood ratio (+LR) 2.81, positive predictive value (PPV) 60%, negative predictive value (NPV) 92.9%, relative risk (RR) 8.4]. CONCLUSIONS: In this analysis, mean dose to the AE folds was associated with an increased risk of aspiration at 1 year. However, these are hypothesis-generating data that require further research and validation in a larger patient subset.

The impact of time after radiation treatment on dysphagia in patients with head and neck cancer enrolled in a swallowing therapy program.

BACKGROUND: Swallowing dysfunction after radiotherapy (RT) for head and neck cancer can be devastating. A randomized control trial compared swallow exercises versus exercise plus neuromuscular electrical stimulation therapy and found no overall difference in outcomes. METHODS: Quality of life (QOL), diet, and swallowing variables collected at discrete intervals on 117 patients were reanalyzed to test the hypothesis that shorter time between the completion of radiotherapy and beginning of the swallowing therapy program yielded improved outcomes. RESULTS: At baseline, subjects < 1 year post radiation had significantly better function than subjects >2 years post RT in several measures. Over the therapy program, the early group showed significant improvement in diet and QOL. Swallowing physiologic variables showed no difference between groups. CONCLUSION: Beginning a swallowing therapy program within 1 year of completion of radiotherapy demonstrates more consistent improvement in QOL and diet performance compared to later periods.

Residue influences quality of life independently of penetration and aspiration in head and neck cancer survivors.

OBJECTIVES/HYPOTHESIS: Dysphagia is one of the most significant side effects of the treatment of head and neck cancer. Residue and aspiration are two indicators of dysphagia, but aspiration is historically the only indicator of interest, because it may impact health outcomes. Clinicians have anecdotally used residue as another marker of swallowing dysfunction, but it is understudied. This project investigated the impact of aspiration versus residue on function and quality of life (QoL) in these patients. STUDY DESIGN: Observational study. METHODS: A total of 168 head and neck cancer survivors with moderate to severe dysphagia were enrolled in a randomized clinical trial comparing two swallow therapy interventions. Data at time of entry were used for the current study. A modified barium swallow study was done to compute Penetration-Aspiration Scale (PAS) scores, percentage oral residue, and percentage pharyngeal residue with three bolus consistencies (5 mL thin, nectar, and pudding). The Performance Status Scale (PSS) and the Head Neck Cancer Inventory (HNCI) questionnaires were administered. Data were analyzed to determine associations between aspiration and residue estimates with function and QoL scores. RESULTS: Worsening aspiration and residue estimates were all correlated with decreased scores on the PSS functional scales (r = -0.190 to -0.324, P ≤ .031). However, only increasing residue estimates were significantly related to decreased patient-perceived QoL on the HNCI (r = -.178 to -.194, P < .046). This effect was more pronounced with oral versus pharyngeal residue. CONCLUSIONS: In this group of head and neck cancer survivors, penetration/aspiration and residue show independent effects. PAS affects functional status only, but residue affects both functional status and QoL. This study supports that residue should be considered a primary measurement of swallowing function and be a target for identification, treatment, and evaluation of swallowing. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: 2c. Laryngoscope, 127:1615-1621, 2017.

Impact of Compliance on Dysphagia Rehabilitation in Head and Neck Cancer Patients: Results from a Multi-center Clinical Trial.

A 5-year, 16-site, randomized controlled trial enrolled 170 HNC survivors into active (estim + swallow exercise) or control (sham estim + swallowing exercise) arms. Primary analyses showed that estim did not enhance swallowing exercises. This secondary analysis determined if/how patient compliance impacted outcomes. A home program, performed 2 times/day, 6 days/week, for 12 weeks included stretches and 60 swallows paired with real or sham estim. Regular clinic visits ensured proper exercise execution, and detailed therapy checklists tracked patient compliance which was defined by mean number of sessions performed per week (0-12 times) over the 12-week intervention period. "Compliant" was defined as performing 10-12 sessions/week. Outcomes were changes in PAS, HNCI, PSS, OPSE, and hyoid excursion. ANCOVA analyses determined if outcomes differed between real/sham and compliant/noncompliant groups after 12 weeks of therapy. Of the 170 patients enrolled, 153 patients had compliance data. The mean number of sessions performed was 8.57/week (median = 10.25). Fifty-four percent of patients (n = 83) were considered "compliant." After 12 weeks of therapy, compliant patients in the sham estim group realized significantly better PAS scores than compliant patients in the active estim group (p = 0.0074). When pooling all patients together, there were no significant differences in outcomes between compliant and non-compliant patients. The addition of estim to swallowing exercises resulted in worse swallowing outcomes than exercises alone, which was more pronounced in compliant patients. Since neither compliant nor non-compliant patients benefitted from swallowing exercises, the proper dose and/or efficacy of swallowing exercises must also be questioned in this patient population.

Orosensory contributions to dysphagia: a link between perception of sweet and sour taste and pharyngeal delay time.

Pharyngeal delay is a significant swallowing disorder often resulting in aspiration. It is suspected that pharyngeal delay originates from sensory impairment, but a direct demonstration of a link between oral sensation and pharyngeal delay is lacking. In this study involving six patients with complaints of dysphagia, taste sensation of the oral tongue was measured and subsequently related to swallowing kinematics. It was found that a response bias for sour taste was significantly correlated with pharyngeal delay time on paste, highlighting oral sensory contributions to swallow motor dysfunctions. Investigating the precise nature of such a link between oral sensation and dysphagia would constitute a basis for understanding the disorder. The results of this study highlight oral sensory contributions to pharyngeal swallow events and provide impetus to examine this link in larger samples of dysphagic patients.

Verbal communication for the ventilator-dependent patient requiring an inflated tracheotomy tube cuff: A prospective, multicenter study on the Blom tracheotomy tube with speech inner cannula.

BACKGROUND: The purpose of this study was to present our findings on the impact of the Blom tracheotomy tube with speech inner cannula on voice production abilities and speech intelligibility scores of ventilator-dependent patients requiring a fully inflated tracheotomy tube cuff. METHODS: Prospective single group case-series design permitted consecutive accrual of 23 adult inpatients from acute care and rehabilitation settings. Maximum ambient room noise, voice intensity, phonation duration of vowel /a/, and speech intelligibility scores were determined over 3 sessions. RESULTS: All participants achieved audible voicing with the Blom tracheotomy tube. Voice intensity was significantly greater than ambient room noise by >10 dB SPL (p = .003). Speech intelligibility scores improved significantly from 80% to 85% (p = .03). Phonation duration averaged from 3.30 to 3.45 seconds. There were no significant changes in oxygen saturation (p > .05), and no significant complications occurred. CONCLUSION: The Blom tracheotomy tube with speech inner cannula permitted individuals requiring mechanical ventilation with a fully inflated tracheotomy tube cuff to produce excellent speech intelligibility for verbal communication. © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Head Neck, 2013.

Rehabilitation of dysphagia following head and neck cancer.

Patients who have cancers of the oral cavity, pharynx, or larynx may be treated with surgery, radiotherapy, chemotherapy, or a combination of these modalities. Each treatment type may have a negative impact on posttreatment swallowing function; these effects are presented in this article. A number of rehabilitative procedures are available to the clinician to reduce or eliminate swallowing disorders in patients treated for cancer of the head and neck. The various procedures-including postures, maneuvers, modifications to bolus volume and viscosity, range-of-motion exercises, and strengthening exercises-and their efficacy in patients treated for head and neck cancer are discussed.