Infrared reflection absorption spectroscopy setup with incidence angle selection for surfaces of non-metals.

Infrared Reflection Absorption Spectroscopy (IRAS) on dielectric single crystals is challenging because the optimal incidence angles for light-adsorbate interaction coincide with regions of low IR reflectivity. Here, we introduce an optimized IRAS setup that maximizes the signal-to-noise ratio for non-metals. This is achieved by maximizing light throughput and by selecting optimal incidence angles that directly impact the peak heights in the spectra. The setup uses a commercial Fourier transform infrared spectrometer and is usable in ultra-high vacuum (UHV). Specifically, the optical design features sample illumination and collection mirrors with a high numerical aperture inside the UHV system and adjustable apertures to select the incidence angle range on the sample. This is important for p-polarized measurements on dielectrics because the peaks in the spectra reverse the direction at the Brewster angle (band inversion). The system components are connected precisely via a single flange, ensuring long-term stability. We studied the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) variation in p-polarized IRAS spectra for one monolayer of CO on TiO2(110) as a function of incidence angle range, where a maximum SNR of 70 was achieved at 4 cm-1 resolution in a measurement time of 5 min. The capabilities for s polarization are demonstrated by measuring one monolayer D2O adsorbed on a TiO2(110) surface, where a SNR of 65 was achieved at a peak height ΔR/R0 of 1.4 × 10-4 in 20 min.

CO-Induced Dimer Decay Responsible for Gem-Dicarbonyl Formation on a Model Single-Atom Catalyst.

The ability to coordinate multiple reactants at the same active site is important for the wide-spread applicability of single-atom catalysis. Model catalysts are ideal to investigate the link between active site geometry and reactant binding, because the structure of single-crystal surfaces can be precisely determined, the adsorbates imaged by scanning tunneling microscopy (STM), and direct comparisons made to density functional theory. In this study, we follow the evolution of Rh1 adatoms and minority Rh2 dimers on Fe3O4(001) during exposure to CO using time-lapse STM at room temperature. CO adsorption at Rh1 sites results exclusively in stable Rh1CO monocarbonyls, because the Rh atom adapts its coordination to create a stable pseudo-square planar environment. Rh1(CO)2 gem-dicarbonyl species are also observed, but these form exclusively through the breakup of Rh2 dimers via an unstable Rh2(CO)3 intermediate. Overall, our results illustrate how minority species invisible to area-averaging spectra can play an important role in catalytic systems, and show that the decomposition of dimers or small clusters can be an avenue to produce reactive, metastable configurations in single-atom catalysis.

Interaction of surface cations of cleaved mica with water in vapor and liquid forms.

Natural minerals contain ions that become hydrated when they come into contact with water in vapor and liquid forms. Muscovite mica - a common phyllosilicate with perfect cleavage planes - is an ideal system to investigate the details of ion hydration. The cleaved mica surface is decorated by an array of K+ ions that can be easily exchanged with other ions or protons when immersed in an aqueous solution. Despite the vast interest in the atomic-scale hydration processes of these K+ ions, experimental data under controlled conditions have remained elusive. Here, atomically resolved non-contact atomic force microscopy (nc-AFM) is combined with X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) to investigate the cation hydration upon dosing water vapor at 100 K in ultra-high vacuum (UHV). The cleaved surface is further exposed to ultra-clean liquid water at room temperature, which promotes ion mobility and partial ion-to-proton substitution. The results offer the first direct experimental views of the interaction of water with muscovite mica under UHV. The findings are in line with previous theoretical predictions.

A Multitechnique Study of C2H4 Adsorption on Fe3O4(001).

The adsorption/desorption of ethene (C2H4), also commonly known as ethylene, on Fe3O4(001) was studied under ultrahigh vacuum conditions using temperature-programmed desorption (TPD), scanning tunneling microscopy, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, and density functional theory (DFT)-based computations. To interpret the TPD data, we have employed a new analysis method based on equilibrium thermodynamics. C2H4 adsorbs intact at all coverages and interacts most strongly with surface defects such as antiphase domain boundaries and Fe adatoms. On the regular surface, C2H4 binds atop surface Fe sites up to a coverage of 2 molecules per (√2 × âˆš2)R45° unit cell, with every second Fe occupied. A desorption energy of 0.36 eV is determined by analysis of the TPD spectra at this coverage, which is approximately 0.1-0.2 eV lower than the value calculated by DFT + U with van der Waals corrections. Additional molecules are accommodated in between the Fe rows. These are stabilized by attractive interactions with the molecules adsorbed at Fe sites. The total capacity of the surface for C2H4 adsorption is found to be close to 4 molecules per (√2 × âˆš2)R45° unit cell.

Rapid oxygen exchange between hematite and water vapor.

Oxygen exchange at oxide/liquid and oxide/gas interfaces is important in technology and environmental studies, as it is closely linked to both catalytic activity and material degradation. The atomic-scale details are mostly unknown, however, and are often ascribed to poorly defined defects in the crystal lattice. Here we show that even thermodynamically stable, well-ordered surfaces can be surprisingly reactive. Specifically, we show that all the 3-fold coordinated lattice oxygen atoms on a defect-free single-crystalline "r-cut" ([Formula: see text]) surface of hematite (α-Fe2O3) are exchanged with oxygen from surrounding water vapor within minutes at temperatures below 70 °C, while the atomic-scale surface structure is unperturbed by the process. A similar behavior is observed after liquid-water exposure, but the experimental data clearly show most of the exchange happens during desorption of the final monolayer, not during immersion. Density functional theory computations show that the exchange can happen during on-surface diffusion, where the cost of the lattice oxygen extraction is compensated by the stability of an HO-HOH-OH complex. Such insights into lattice oxygen stability are highly relevant for many research fields ranging from catalysis and hydrogen production to geochemistry and paleoclimatology.

Atomic-Scale Studies of Fe3 O4 (001) and TiO2 (110) Surfaces Following Immersion in CO2 -Acidified Water.

Difficulties associated with the integration of liquids into a UHV environment make surface-science style studies of mineral dissolution particularly challenging. Recently, we developed a novel experimental setup for the UHV-compatible dosing of ultrapure liquid water and studied its interaction with TiO2 and Fe3 O4 surfaces. Herein, we describe a simple approach to vary the pH through the partial pressure of CO2 ( p C O 2 ) in the surrounding vacuum chamber and use this to study how these surfaces react to an acidic solution. The TiO2 (110) surface is unaffected by the acidic solution, except for a small amount of carbonaceous contamination. The Fe3 O4 (001)-( 2 × 2 )R45° surface begins to dissolve at a pH 4.0-3.9 ( p C O 2 =0.8-1 bar) and, although it is significantly roughened, the atomic-scale structure of the Fe3 O4 (001) surface layer remains visible in scanning tunneling microscopy (STM) images. X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) reveals that the surface is chemically reduced and contains a significant accumulation of bicarbonate (HCO3 - ) species. These observations are consistent with Fe(II) being extracted by bicarbonate ions, leading to dissolved iron bicarbonate complexes (Fe(HCO3 )2 ), which precipitate onto the surface when the water evaporates.

Self-limited growth of an oxyhydroxide phase at the Fe3O4(001) surface in liquid and ambient pressure water.

Atomic-scale investigations of metal oxide surfaces exposed to aqueous environments are vital to understand degradation phenomena (e.g., dissolution and corrosion) as well as the performance of these materials in applications. Here, we utilize a new experimental setup for the ultrahigh vacuum-compatible dosing of liquids to explore the stability of the Fe3O4(001)-(√2 × âˆš2)R45° surface following exposure to liquid and ambient pressure water. X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy and low-energy electron diffraction data show that extensive hydroxylation causes the surface to revert to a bulklike (1 × 1) termination. However, scanning tunneling microscopy (STM) images reveal a more complex situation, with the slow growth of an oxyhydroxide phase, which ultimately saturates at approximately 40% coverage. We conclude that the new material contains OH groups from dissociated water coordinated to Fe cations extracted from subsurface layers and that the surface passivates once the surface oxygen lattice is saturated with H because no further dissociation can take place. The resemblance of the STM images to those acquired in previous electrochemical STM studies leads us to believe that a similar structure exists at the solid-electrolyte interface during immersion at pH 7.

Apparatus for dosing liquid water in ultrahigh vacuum.

The structure of the solid-liquid interface often defines the function and performance of materials in applications. To study this interface at the atomic scale, we extended an ultrahigh vacuum (UHV) surface-science chamber with an apparatus that allows bringing a surface in contact with ultrapure liquid water without exposure to air. In this process, a sample, typically a single crystal prepared and characterized in UHV, is transferred into a separate, small chamber. This chamber already contains a volume of ultrapure water ice. The ice is at cryogenic temperature, which reduces its vapor pressure to the UHV range. Upon warming, the ice melts and forms a liquid droplet, which is deposited on the sample. In test experiments, a rutile TiO2(110) single crystal exposed to liquid water showed unprecedented surface purity, as established by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy and scanning tunneling microscopy. These results enabled us to separate the effect of pure water from the effect of low-level impurities present in the air. Other possible uses of the setup are discussed.

High-affinity adsorption leads to molecularly ordered interfaces on TiO2 in air and solution.

Researchers around the world have observed the formation of molecularly ordered structures of unknown origin on the surface of titanium dioxide (TiO2) photocatalysts exposed to air and solution. Using a combination of atomic-scale microscopy and spectroscopy, we show that TiO2 selectively adsorbs atmospheric carboxylic acids that are typically present in parts-per-billion concentrations while effectively repelling other adsorbates, such as alcohols, that are present in much higher concentrations. The high affinity of the surface for carboxylic acids is attributed to their bidentate binding. These self-assembled monolayers have the unusual property of being both hydrophobic and highly water-soluble, which may contribute to the self-cleaning properties of TiO2 This finding is relevant to TiO2 photocatalysis, because the self-assembled carboxylate monolayers block the undercoordinated surface cation sites typically implicated in photocatalysis.

Water agglomerates on Fe3O4(001).

Determining the structure of water adsorbed on solid surfaces is a notoriously difficult task and pushes the limits of experimental and theoretical techniques. Here, we follow the evolution of water agglomerates on Fe3O4(001); a complex mineral surface relevant in both modern technology and the natural environment. Strong OH-H2O bonds drive the formation of partially dissociated water dimers at low coverage, but a surface reconstruction restricts the density of such species to one per unit cell. The dimers act as an anchor for further water molecules as the coverage increases, leading first to partially dissociated water trimers, and then to a ring-like, hydrogen-bonded network that covers the entire surface. Unraveling this complexity requires the concerted application of several state-of-the-art methods. Quantitative temperature-programmed desorption (TPD) reveals the coverage of stable structures, monochromatic X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) shows the extent of partial dissociation, and noncontact atomic force microscopy (AFM) using a CO-functionalized tip provides a direct view of the agglomerate structure. Together, these data provide a stringent test of the minimum-energy configurations determined via a van der Waals density functional theory (DFT)-based genetic search.

A multi-technique study of CO2 adsorption on Fe3O4 magnetite.

The adsorption of CO2 on the Fe3O4(001)-(2 × 2)R45° surface was studied experimentally using temperature programmed desorption (TPD), photoelectron spectroscopies (UPS and XPS), and scanning tunneling microscopy. CO2 binds most strongly at defects related to Fe2+, including antiphase domain boundaries in the surface reconstruction and above incorporated Fe interstitials. At higher coverages,CO2 adsorbs at fivefold-coordinated Fe3+ sites with a binding energy of 0.4 eV. Above a coverage of 4 molecules per (2 × 2)R45° unit cell, further adsorption results in a compression of the first monolayer up to a density approaching that of a CO2 ice layer. Surprisingly, desorption of the second monolayer occurs at a lower temperature (≈84 K) than CO2 multilayers (≈88 K), suggestive of a metastable phase or diffusion-limited island growth. The paper also discusses design considerations for a vacuum system optimized to study the surface chemistry of metal oxide single crystals, including the calibration and characterisation of a molecular beam source for quantitative TPD measurements.

The Role of Surface Defects in the Adsorption of Methanol on Fe3O4(001).

The adsorption of methanol (CH3OH) at the Fe3O4(001)-(√2 × âˆš2)R45° surface was studied using X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, scanning tunneling microscopy, and temperature-programmed desorption (TPD). CH3OH adsorbs exclusively at surface defect sites at room temperature to form hydroxyl groups and methoxy (CH3O) species. Active sites are identified as step edges, iron adatoms, antiphase domain boundaries in the (√2 × âˆš2)R45° reconstruction, and above Fe atoms incorporated in the subsurface. In TPD, recombinative desorption is observed around 300 K, and a disproportionation reaction to form methanol and formaldehyde occurs at 470 K.

Dual role of CO in the stability of subnano Pt clusters at the Fe3O4(001) surface.

Interactions between catalytically active metal particles and reactant gases depend strongly on the particle size, particularly in the subnanometer regime where the addition of just one atom can induce substantial changes in stability, morphology, and reactivity. Here, time-lapse scanning tunneling microscopy (STM) and density functional theory (DFT)-based calculations are used to study how CO exposure affects the stability of Pt adatoms and subnano clusters at the Fe3O4(001) surface, a model CO oxidation catalyst. The results reveal that CO plays a dual role: first, it induces mobility among otherwise stable Pt adatoms through the formation of Pt carbonyls (Pt1-CO), leading to agglomeration into subnano clusters. Second, the presence of the CO stabilizes the smallest clusters against decay at room temperature, significantly modifying the growth kinetics. At elevated temperatures, CO desorption results in a partial redispersion and recovery of the Pt adatom phase.

Adsorption of water at the SrO surface of ruthenates.

Although perovskite oxides hold promise in applications ranging from solid oxide fuel cells to catalysts, their surface chemistry is poorly understood at the molecular level. Here we follow the formation of the first monolayer of water at the (001) surfaces of Sr(n+1)Ru(n)O3(n+1) (n = 1, 2) using low-temperature scanning tunnelling microscopy, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, and density functional theory. These layered perovskites cleave between neighbouring SrO planes, yielding almost ideal, rocksalt-like surfaces. An adsorbed monomer dissociates and forms a pair of hydroxide ions. The OH stemming from the original molecule stays trapped at Sr-Sr bridge positions, circling the surface OH with a measured activation energy of 187 ± 10 meV. At higher coverage, dimers of dissociated water assemble into one-dimensional chains and form a percolating network where water adsorbs molecularly in the gaps. Our work shows the limitations of applying surface chemistry concepts derived for binary rocksalt oxides to perovskites.

An Atomic-Scale View of CO and H2 Oxidation on a Pt/Fe3 O4 Model Catalyst.

Metal-support interactions are frequently invoked to explain the enhanced catalytic activity of metal nanoparticles dispersed over reducible metal oxide supports, yet the atomic-scale mechanisms are rarely known. In this report, scanning tunneling microscopy was used to study a Pt1-6/Fe3O4 model catalyst exposed to CO, H2, O2, and mixtures thereof at 550 K. CO extracts lattice oxygen atoms at the cluster perimeter to form CO2, creating large holes in the metal oxide surface. H2 and O2 dissociate on the metal clusters and spill over onto the support. The former creates surface hydroxy groups, which react with the support, ultimately leading to the desorption of water, while oxygen atoms react with Fe from the bulk to create new Fe3O4(001) islands. The presence of the Pt is crucial because it catalyzes reactions that already occur on the bare iron oxide surface, but only at higher temperatures.

Charge trapping at the step edges of TiO(2) anatase (101).

A combination of photoemission, atomic force, and scanning tunneling microscopy/spectroscopy measurements shows that excess electrons in the TiO2 anatase (101) surface are trapped at step edges. Consequently, steps act as preferred adsorption sites for O2 . In density functional theory calculations electrons localize at clean step edges, this tendency is enhanced by O vacancies and hydroxylation. The results show the importance of defects for the wide-ranging applications of titania.

Carbon monoxide-induced adatom sintering in a Pd-Fe3O4 model catalyst.

The coarsening of catalytically active metal clusters is often accelerated by the presence of gases, but the role played by gas molecules is difficult to ascertain and varies from system to system. We use scanning tunnelling microscopy to follow the CO-induced coalescence of Pd adatoms supported on the Fe3O4(001) surface at room temperature, and find Pd-carbonyl species to be responsible for mobility in this system. Once these reach a critical density, clusters nucleate; subsequent coarsening occurs through cluster diffusion and coalescence. Whereas CO induces the mobility in the Pd/Fe3O4 system, surface hydroxyls have the opposite effect. Pd atoms transported to surface OH groups are no longer susceptible to carbonyl formation and remain isolated. Following the evolution from well-dispersed metal adatoms into clusters, atom-by-atom, allows identification of the key processes that underlie gas-induced mass transport.