Flagellin is a Th1 polarizing factor for human CD4+ T cells and induces protection in a murine neonatal vaccination model of rotavirus infection.

Neonates have an increased susceptibility to infections, particularly those caused by intracellular pathogens, leading to high morbidity and mortality rates. This is partly because of a poor response of neonatal CD4+ T cells, leading to deficient antibody production and a low production of IFN-γ, resulting in deficient elimination of intracellular pathogens. The poor memory response of human neonates has underpinned the need for improving vaccine formulations. Molecular adjuvants that improve the response of neonatal lymphocytes, such as the ligands of toll-like receptors (TLRs), are attractive candidates. Among them, flagellin, the TLR5 ligand, is effective at very low doses; prior immunity to flagellin does not impair its adjuvant activity. Human CD4+ and CD8+ T cells express TLR5. We found that flagellin induces the expression of IFN-γ, IL-1ß and IL-12 in mononuclear cells from human neonate and adult donors. When human naïve CD4+ T cells were activated in the presence of flagellin, there was high level of expression of IFN-γ in both neonates and adults. Furthermore, flagellin induced IFN-γ production in Th1 cells obtained from adult donors; in the Th2 population, it inhibited IL-4 cytokine production. Flagellin also promoted expression of the IFN-γ receptor in naive CD4+ T cells from neonates and adults. To test the adjuvant capacity of flagellin in vivo, we used a murine neonate vaccination model for infection with rotavirus, a pathogen responsible for severe diarrhea in young infants. Using the conserved VP6 antigen, we observed an 80% protection against rotavirus infection in the presence of flagellin, but only in those mice previously primed in the neonatal period. Our data suggest that flagellin could be an attractive adjuvant for achieving a Th1 response.

Protamine-based nanoparticles as new antigen delivery systems.

The use of biodegradable nanoparticles as antigen delivery vehicles is an attractive approach to overcome the problems associated with the use of Alum-based classical adjuvants. Herein we report, the design and development of protamine-based nanoparticles as novel antigen delivery systems, using recombinant hepatitis B surface antigen as a model viral antigen. The nanoparticles, composed of protamine and a polysaccharide (hyaluronic acid or alginate), were obtained using a mild ionic cross-linking technique. The size and surface charge of the nanoparticles could be modulated by adjusting the ratio of the components. Prototypes with optimal physicochemical characteristics and satisfactory colloidal stability were selected for the assessment of their antigen loading capacity, antigen stability during storage and in vitro and in vivo proof-of-concept studies. In vitro studies showed that antigen-loaded nanoparticles induced the secretion of cytokines by macrophages more efficiently than the antigen in solution, thus indicating a potential adjuvant effect of the nanoparticles. Finally, in vivo studies showed the capacity of these systems to trigger efficient immune responses against the hepatitis B antigen following intramuscular administration, suggesting the potential interest of protamine-polysaccharide nanoparticles as antigen delivery systems.

Conformational changes in human plasma proteins induced by metal oxide nanoparticles.

The interaction of nanoparticles (Nps) with body fluids may induce conformational changes in the proteins present in the medium. Such interactions could induce functional loss or important modifications in some proteins, and trigger cellular events induced by the Np-protein moiety. As metal oxide nanoparticles are widely used for various applications, the interaction of four different metal oxide Nps (ZnO, TiO2, CeO2 and Al2O3) with three of the main protein fractions from human plasma (albumin, fibrinogen and globulins) was characterized by fluorescence and Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy. The pattern of Np-protein interaction was shown to vary depending on the type of Np. For ZnO Nps, a strong interaction was observed, which induced a decrease in the thermal stability of both fibrinogen and albumin at a low temperature, interfering with the clotting activity of fibrinogen. TiO2 and CeO2 Nps showed lower effects, while for Al2O3 Nps only a slight or null interaction was observed at physiological pH. Moreover, the influence of pH was characterized for albumin, showing that the Np-protein interaction has an important dependence on the Np surface charge. The conformational changes induced by metal oxide Nps in the secondary structure of albumin are principally the transformation of α-helices into ß-sheet structures. The interaction, with the exception of Al2O3 nanoparticles at basic pH, could take place in the domain II of the protein, formed mainly by hydrophobic and positive residues.