A hypothalamic dopamine locus for psychostimulant-induced hyperlocomotion in mice.

The lateral septum (LS) has been implicated in the regulation of locomotion. Nevertheless, the neurons synchronizing LS activity with the brain's clock in the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) remain unknown. By interrogating the molecular, anatomical and physiological heterogeneity of dopamine neurons of the periventricular nucleus (PeVN; A14 catecholaminergic group), we find that Th+/Dat1+ cells from its anterior subdivision innervate the LS in mice. These dopamine neurons receive dense neuropeptidergic innervation from the SCN. Reciprocal viral tracing in combination with optogenetic stimulation ex vivo identified somatostatin-containing neurons in the LS as preferred synaptic targets of extrahypothalamic A14 efferents. In vivo chemogenetic manipulation of anterior A14 neurons impacted locomotion. Moreover, chemogenetic inhibition of dopamine output from the anterior PeVN normalized amphetamine-induced hyperlocomotion, particularly during sedentary periods. Cumulatively, our findings identify a hypothalamic locus for the diurnal control of locomotion and pinpoint a midbrain-independent cellular target of psychostimulants.

FlyClear: A Tissue-Clearing Technique for High-Resolution Microscopy of Drosophila.

Fluorescently labeled transgenic lines of Drosophila melanogaster are a powerful routine tool in fly laboratories. The possibility to fluorescently visualize individual cell populations or entire tissues and the constantly improving microscopy technologies such as two-photon or light-sheet applications, with deep tissue imaging, hold great potential to address central biological questions at an organismic level. However, strong pigmentation and the opaque nature of the D. melanogaster cuticle hinder the penetration of visible light into internal tissues, thereby limiting the application of fluorescent microscopes to analyses of the outermost surfaces of intact samples. In addition, tissue-induced light scattering and optical aberrations quickly blur the view and, hence, require tissue sectioning for further investigation. We have developed a tissue-clearing and depigmentation approach (FlyClear), which preserves endogenous fluorescent signals and is applicable to various developmental stages ranging from larvae to adult fruit flies (Pende et al. Nature communications 9:4731, 2018). In this chapter, we provide a detailed protocol of the experimental steps involved.

A hybrid open-top light-sheet microscope for versatile multi-scale imaging of cleared tissues.

Light-sheet microscopy has emerged as the preferred means for high-throughput volumetric imaging of cleared tissues. However, there is a need for a flexible system that can address imaging applications with varied requirements in terms of resolution, sample size, tissue-clearing protocol, and transparent sample-holder material. Here, we present a 'hybrid' system that combines a unique non-orthogonal dual-objective and conventional (orthogonal) open-top light-sheet (OTLS) architecture for versatile multi-scale volumetric imaging. We demonstrate efficient screening and targeted sub-micrometer imaging of sparse axons within an intact, cleared mouse brain. The same system enables high-throughput automated imaging of multiple specimens, as spotlighted by a quantitative multi-scale analysis of brain metastases. Compared with existing academic and commercial light-sheet microscopy systems, our hybrid OTLS system provides a unique combination of versatility and performance necessary to satisfy the diverse requirements of a growing number of cleared-tissue imaging applications.

The use of transgenics in the laboratory axolotl.

The ability to generate transgenic animals sparked a wave of research committed to implementing such technology in a wide variety of model organisms. Building a solid base of ubiquitous and tissue-specific reporter lines has set the stage for later interrogations of individual cells or genetic elements. Compared to other widely used model organisms such as mice, zebrafish and fruit flies, there are only a few transgenic lines available in the laboratory axolotl (Ambystoma mexicanum), although their number is steadily expanding. In this review, we discuss a brief history of the transgenic methodologies in axolotl and their advantages and disadvantages. Next, we discuss available transgenic lines and insights we have been able to glean from them. Finally, we list challenges when developing transgenic axolotl, and where further work is needed in order to improve their standing as both a developmental and regenerative model.

Visualizing minute details in light-sheet and confocal microscopy data by combining 3D rolling ball filtering and deconvolution.

We developed an open-source deconvolution software that stunningly increases the visibility of minute details, as for example, neurons or nerve fibers in light-sheet microscopy or confocal microscopy data by combining rolling ball background subtraction in three directions with deconvolution using a synthetic or measured point spread function. Via automatic block-wise processing image stacks of virtually unlimited size can be deconvolved even on small computers with 8 or 16 GB RAM. By parallelization and optional GPU-acceleration, the software works with high speed: On a PC equipped with a state-of-the-art NVidia graphic board a three dimensional (3D)-stack of about 1 billion voxels can be deconvolved within 5 to 10 minutes. The implemented variation of the Richardson-Lucy deconvolution algorithm preserves the photogrammetry of the image data by using flux-preserving regularization, an approach that to our knowledge has not been applied for deconvolving microscopy data before.

The cytokine MIF controls daily rhythms of symbiont nutrition in an animal-bacterial association.

The recent recognition that many symbioses exhibit daily rhythms has encouraged research into the partner dialogue that drives these biological oscillations. Here we characterized the pivotal role of the versatile cytokine macrophage migration inhibitory factor (MIF) in regulating a metabolic rhythm in the model light-organ symbiosis between Euprymna scolopes and Vibrio fischeri As the juvenile host matures, it develops complex daily rhythms characterized by profound changes in the association, from gene expression to behavior. One such rhythm is a diurnal shift in symbiont metabolism triggered by the periodic provision of a specific nutrient by the mature host: each night the symbionts catabolize chitin released from hemocytes (phagocytic immune cells) that traffic into the light-organ crypts, where the population of V. fischeri cells resides. Nocturnal migration of these macrophage-like cells, together with identification of an E. scolopes MIF (EsMIF) in the light-organ transcriptome, led us to ask whether EsMIF might be the gatekeeper controlling the periodic movement of the hemocytes. Western blots, ELISAs, and confocal immunocytochemistry showed EsMIF was at highest abundance in the light organ. Its concentration there was lowest at night, when hemocytes entered the crypts. EsMIF inhibited migration of isolated hemocytes, whereas exported bacterial products, including peptidoglycan derivatives and secreted chitin catabolites, induced migration. These results provide evidence that the nocturnal decrease in EsMIF concentration permits the hemocytes to be drawn into the crypts, delivering chitin. This nutritional function for a cytokine offers the basis for the diurnal rhythms underlying a dynamic symbiotic conversation.

A versatile depigmentation, clearing, and labeling method for exploring nervous system diversity.

Tissue clearing combined with deep imaging has emerged as a powerful alternative to classical histological techniques. Whereas current techniques have been optimized for imaging selected nonpigmented organs such as the mammalian brain, natural pigmentation remains challenging for most other biological specimens of larger volume. We have developed a fast DEpigmEntation-Plus-Clearing method (DEEP-Clear) that is easily incorporated in existing workflows and combines whole system labeling with a spectrum of detection techniques, ranging from immunohistochemistry to RNA in situ hybridization, labeling of proliferative cells (EdU labeling) and visualization of transgenic markers. With light-sheet imaging of whole animals and detailed confocal studies on pigmented organs, we provide unprecedented insight into eyes, whole nervous systems, and subcellular structures in animal models ranging from worms and squids to axolotls and zebrafish. DEEP-Clear thus paves the way for the exploration of species-rich clades and developmental stages that are largely inaccessible by regular imaging approaches.

Deconvolution of light sheet microscopy recordings.

We developed a deconvolution software for light sheet microscopy that uses a theoretical point spread function, which we derived from a model of image formation in a light sheet microscope. We show that this approach provides excellent blur reduction and enhancement of fine image details for image stacks recorded with low magnification objectives of relatively high NA and high field numbers as e.g. 2x NA 0.14 FN 22, or 4x NA 0.28 FN 22. For these objectives, which are widely used in light sheet microscopy, sufficiently resolved point spread functions that are suitable for deconvolution are difficult to measure and the results obtained by common deconvolution software developed for confocal microscopy are usually poor. We demonstrate that the deconvolutions computed using our point spread function model are equivalent to those obtained using a measured point spread function for a 10x objective with NA 0.3 and for a 20x objective with NA 0.45.

High-resolution imaging of fluorescent whole mouse brains using stabilised organic media (sDISCO).

Optical tissue clearing using dibenzyl ether (DBE) or BABB (1 part benzyl alcohol and 2 parts benzyl benzoate) is easy in application and allows deep-tissue imaging of a wide range of specimens. However, in both substances, optical clearing and storage times of enhanced green fluorescent protein (EGFP)-expressing specimens are limited due to the continuous formation of peroxides and aldehydes, which severely quench fluorescence. Stabilisation of purified DBE or BABB by addition of the antioxidant propyl gallate efficiently preserves fluorescence signals in EGFP-expressing samples for more than a year. This enables longer clearing times and improved tissue transparency with higher fluorescence signal intensity. The here introduced clearing protocol termed stabilised DISCO allows to image spines in a whole mouse brain and to detect faint changes in the activity-dependent expression pattern of tdTomato.

High-resolution ultramicroscopy of the developing and adult nervous system in optically cleared Drosophila melanogaster.

The fruit fly, Drosophila melanogaster, is an important experimental model to address central questions in neuroscience at an organismic level. However, imaging of neural circuits in intact fruit flies is limited due to structural properties of the cuticle. Here we present a novel approach combining tissue clearing, ultramicroscopy, and data analysis that enables the visualisation of neuronal networks with single-cell resolution from the larval stage up to the adult Drosophila. FlyClear, the signal preserving clearing technique we developed, stabilises tissue integrity and fluorescence signal intensity for over a month and efficiently removes the overall pigmentation. An aspheric ultramicroscope set-up utilising an improved light-sheet generator allows us to visualise long-range connections of peripheral sensory and central neurons in the visual and olfactory system. High-resolution 3D reconstructions with isotropic resolution from entire GFP-expressing flies are obtained by applying image fusion from orthogonal directions. This methodological integration of novel chemical, optical, and computational techniques allows a major advance in the analysis of global neural circuit organisation.

Reshaping a multimode laser beam into a constructed Gaussian beam for generating a thin light sheet.

Based on the modal analysis method, we developed a model that describes the output beam of a diode-pumped solid state (DPSS) laser emitting a multimode beam. Measuring the output beam profile in the near field and at the constructed far field the individual modes, their respective contributions, and their optical parameters are determined. Using this information, the beam is optically reshaped into a quasi-Gaussian beam by the interference and superposition of the various modes. This process is controlled by a mode modulator unit that includes different meso-aspheric elements and a soft-aperture. The converted beam is guided into a second optical unit comprising achromatic-aspheric elements to produce a thin light sheet for ultramicroscopy. We found that this light sheet is markedly thinner and exhibits less side shoulders compared with a light sheet directly generated from the output of a DPSS multimode laser.

Outlook on optimizing ultramicroscopy imaging technique through optical characterization.

Here, we present an optically optimized system for static ultramicroscopy imaging technique. The unit for generating an ultra-thin light sheet employs aspheric and meso-optical elements (meso-aspheric system). An analytical as well as an experimental comparison between the light sheet produced by the standard system (using a rectangular slit aperture and one cylindrical lens) and the one produced by our latest optimized system, which converts a symmetrical Gaussian beam into an ultra-thin light sheet is presented. Using the new light sheet in combination with our objective equipped with a modulator unit to compensate the refractive index mismatch between air and mediums with indices of 1.45-1.56, we present high resolution images of various biological samples that were chemically cleared using different methods. They demonstrate a marked improvement in quality, contrast and resolution.

Aquaporin 4-specific T cells and NMO-IgG cause primary retinal damage in experimental NMO/SD.

Neuromyelitis optica/spectrum disorder (NMO/SD) is a severe, inflammatory disease of the central nervous system (CNS). In the majority of patients, it is associated with the presence of pathogenic serum autoantibodies (the so-called NMO-IgGs) directed against the water channel aquaporin 4 (AQP4), and with the formation of large, astrocyte-destructive lesions in spinal cord and optic nerves. A large number of recent studies using optical coherence tomography (OCT) demonstrated that damage to optic nerves in NMO/SD is also associated with retinal injury, as evidenced by retinal nerve fiber layer (RNFL) thinning and microcystic inner nuclear layer abnormalities. These studies concluded that retinal injury in NMO/SD patients results from secondary neurodegeneration triggered by optic neuritis.However, the eye also contains cells expressing AQP4, i.e., Müller cells and astrocytes in the retina, epithelial cells of the ciliary body, and epithelial cells of the iris, which raised the question whether the eye can also be a primary target in NMO/SD. Here, we addressed this point in experimental NMO/SD (ENMO) induced in Lewis rat by transfer of AQP4268-285-specific T cells and NMO-IgG.We show that these animals show retinitis and subsequent dysfunction/damage of retinal axons and neurons, and that this pathology occurs independently of the action of NMO-IgG. We further show that in the retinae of ENMO animals Müller cell side branches lose AQP4 reactivity, while retinal astrocytes and Müller cell processes in the RNFL/ganglionic cell layers are spared. These changes only occur in the presence of both AQP4268-285-specific T cells and NMO-IgG.Cumulatively, our data show that damage to retinal cells can be a primary event in NMO/SD.

Ultramicroscopy: development and outlook.

We present an overview of the ultramicroscopy technique we developed. Starting from developments 100 years ago, we designed a light sheet microscope and a chemical clearing to image complete mouse brains. Fluorescence of green fluorescent protein (GFP)-labeled neurons in mouse brains could be preserved with our 3DISCO clearing and high-resolution three-dimensional (3-D) recordings were obtained. Ultramicroscopy was also used to image whole mouse embryos and flies. We improved the optical sectioning of our light sheet microscope by generating longer and thinner light sheets with aspheric optics. To obtain high-resolution images, we corrected available air microscope objectives for clearing solutions with high refractive index. We discuss how eventually super resolution could be realized in light sheet microscopy by applying stimulated emission depletion technology. Also the imaging of brain function by recording of mouse brains expressing cfos-GFP is discussed. Finally, we show the first 3-D recordings of human breast cancer with light sheet microscopy as application in medical diagnostics.