A critique of Bem's "Exotic Becomes Erotic" theory of sexual orientation.

Two critiques of D. J. Bem's (1996) "Exotic Becomes Erotic" (EBE) theory of sexual orientation are presented. First, the core proposition of EBE theory is considered; that is, the idea that adults are erotically attracted to the gender-based class of peers (males or females) who were dissimilar or unfamiliar to them in childhood. Studies cited by Bem and additional research show that EBE theory is not supported by scientific evidence. Second, Bem's claim that his theory applies equally to both sexes is questioned; instead the argument that it neglects and misrepresents women's experiences is made. Bem's conceptualization of erotic desire and his analysis of gender nonconformity illustrate this problem. It is suggested that different theories may be needed to explain the development of men's and women's sexual orientation.

Influencing a partner to use a condom. A college student perspective.

PIP: Many heterosexuals continue to engage in unprotected sexual intercourse despite the risk of contracting AIDS and other sexually transmitted diseases. When sex partners do not initially agree upon condom use, influence strategies may be used to persuade one to either use or not use condoms. The authors examined the opinions and experiences of 393 college students with condom power strategies. Participants were recruited from introductory psychology courses at UCLA and were of mean age 19 years. Overall, they gender-typed strategies as feminine when the goal was to persuade a partner to use condoms and masculine when trying to avoid condom use. Effectiveness and comfort ratings of the strategies varied by student gender and tactic being evaluated. Gender differences were also noted in students' actual experiences with the strategies. Men used seduction most often when trying to encourage condom use, while women most often withheld sex. To encourage avoiding condom use, men were more likely than women to use seduction, reward, and information.^ieng

Women, men, and condoms: attitudes and experiences of heterosexual college students.

PIP: Most sexually active college students do not use condoms. 213 female and 180 male students of the University of California, Los Angeles, were individually surveyed via questionnaire on their attitudes toward condom acceptability and use and intentions to use them in future sexual activities. Students were also questioned specifically about condom effectiveness against pregnancy and sexually transmitted diseases (STD), condom comfort and convenience, interference with sexual pleasure, and the interpersonal consequences of discussing or using condoms. Surveyed students were unmarried, self-proclaimed heterosexuals of mean age 18.6 years recruited from introductory psychology courses. 23% were Asian American, 10% Black, 53% White, and 14% Latino. 73.3% of men and 59.2% of women had experienced sexual intercourse. White students were most likely to have had sexual intercourse (76.7%), while Asian Americans were least likely at least once, yet only 30.6% had done so during their most recent sexual experiences. No significant gender or ethnic differences were found regarding condom use. Respondents felt mildly positive about a condom ability to offer effective protection, but reported a loss of sexual sensation when using condoms. Those with more favorable attitudes toward condoms and positive beliefs about the interpersonal dynamics of condom use reported both higher previous condom use and future intentions to use condoms. Women were more positive about condom use than men. Implications for preventive intervention are discussed.^ieng

Issues in psychotherapy with lesbians and gay men. A survey of psychologists.

In 1984, a task force of the American Psychological Association (APA) Committee on Lesbian and Gay Concerns was charged with investigating bias in psychotherapy with lesbians and gay men. The task force surveyed a large and diverse sample of psychologists to elicit information about specific instances of respondent-defined biased and sensitive psychotherapy practice. Open-ended responses were used to separately identify major themes of biased and sensitive practice and to illustrate each with concrete examples. Results suggest that psychologists vary widely in their adherence to a standard of unbiased practice with gay men and lesbians. To bring individual practice into accord with APA policy will require continued and expanded efforts to educate practitioners about sexual orientation.

Sexual risk reduction behaviors among young heterosexual adults.

Although young, sexually-active heterosexuals have always been at risk for contracting sexually transmitted diseases, the recent appearance of Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (AIDS) has increased the possible peril of sexual experimentation. Currently, behaviors to reduce the risk of contracting AIDS are being widely advocated. The present study examines predictors of self-reported risk reduction behaviors in a sample of 188 young, sexually-active heterosexuals. Three factors (perceptions of personal vulnerability, sexual behaviour history, and homophobia) were hypothesized to predict levels of worry about contracting a sexually transmitted disease. Worry, in turn, was hypothesized to predict behavior change. Structural equation modeling provided support for these predictions, but found somewhat different patterns for women and men. For both sexes, higher levels of worry were a significant predictor of risk reduction behavior implementation. For women only, more extensive sexual behavior histories significantly predicted levels of worry. In contrast, for men only, perceptions of personal vulnerability and homophobia were significant predictors of worry. Results suggest that gender plays an important role in understanding cognitive predictors of sexual risk reduction behaviors.

Sexual exclusivity versus openness in gay male couples.

Forty gay male couples participated in a questionnaire study comparing relationships that partners agreed were sexually open (N = 23) and relationships that partners agreed were sexually closed (N = 17). No significant differences were found in the quality of open versus closed relationships. Almost all men (93%) said they were in love with their partner. On scales assessing degree of love and liking for the partner, men in open and closed relationships were indistinguishable. Nor did the two types of relationships differ in measures of satisfaction and commitment. It appears that sexually open and closed relationships can be equally satisfying. It has been suggested that gay male relationships typically go through predictable stages in which an initial "honeymoon" of sexual exclusivity is inevitably followed by a change to openness. Only 20% of our couples followed this pattern, however. The remaining 80% showed diverse patterns such as continued exclusivity throughout the relationship or a change from initial openness to sexual exclusivity. Men's reasons for having an open or closed relationship were diverse. Personal attitudes and values about the merits of exclusivity were an important factor. Men in open relationships also emphasized the benefits of sexual variety and personal independence. Men in closed relationships stressed their desire to avoid jealousy. Although partners' agreements about whether their relationship should be open or closed had a significant effect on their actual sexual behavior, some discrepancies were found. Most men in closed relationships had had at least one outside sexual liaison, although they reported having many fewer sex partners than men in open relationships.

Perceived dimensions of attributions for loneliness.

This study examined the applicability of Weiner's model of causal attributions to lay explanations for the causes of loneliness. Weiner posits three dimensions (Internatily, Stability, and controllability) along which causes vary and links each dimension to distinct consequences for the actor. To test the salience of these dimensions in lay perceptions of causality, 180 college students made judgments about the causes of loneliness. As predicted, both exploratory and confirmatory multidimensional scaling analyses found that dimensions of Internality and Stability were perceived by respondents. Contrary to recent theorizing, Controllability was not independent of the other two dimensions; instead, controllable causes were both internal and unstable. Confirmation of Internality and Stability as dimensions underlying attributions for loneliness supported the extension of Weiner's model to the domain of affiliative behavior.

Satisfaction in lesbian relationships.

A questionnaire study of 127 lesbians tested hypotheses from the social psychological literature about factors associated with relationship satisfaction. In general, lesbians in the sample reported fairly high levels of satisfaction and love in their current relationship. Results indicated that satisfaction was more strongly related to characteristics of the relationship itself than to the individual attitudes or background characteristics of individual partners. In particular, greater satisfaction was associated with equality of involvement and equality of power in the relationship. Some evidence was also found that similarity was associated with greater satisfaction.

Value orientations in the intimate relationships of gay men.

A questionnaire study investigated the intimate relationships of 128 gay men. Most men said their current relationship was extremely close and personally satisfying. An analysis of their values concerning these relationships identified two distinct dimensions: dyadic attachment and personal autonomy. Relationship values appeared to be part of more general patterns of conservatism versus liberalness in men's attitudes. The importance men gave to attachment values was consistently related to features of their relationships, including love and intimacy, future expectations, sexual behavior and exclusivity, and reactions to breakups. In contrast, autonomy values appeared to have little impact on intimate relationships. Results are discussed in terms of men's sex-role socialization.

Relation between loneliness and depression: a structural equation analysis.

Research on loneliness has been hampered by its strong association with depression. The two states frequently co-occur, and measures of the two states are substantially correlated. Inability to manipulate experimentally loneliness or depression makes it difficult to untangle the causal influence of one on the other. The combination of longitudinal design and structural equation methodology is proposed as a solution to this general problem. Measures of loneliness and depression were administered to undergraduates at two points 5 weeks apart. Data from 333 subjects were correlated and analyzed under a succession of structural equation models. Results indicated that loneliness and depression were correlated but clearly different constructs; neither was a direct cause of the other, though both probably share some common origins; both were highly stable over to 5-week-period.

The revised UCLA Loneliness Scale: concurrent and discriminant validity evidence.

The development of an adequate assessment instrument is a necessary prerequisite for social psychological research on loneliness. Two studies provide methodological refinement in the measurement of loneliness. Study 1 presents a revised version of the self-report UCLA (University of California, Los Angeles) Loneliness Scale, designed to counter the possible effects of response bias in the original scale, and reports concurrent validity evidence for the revised measure. Study 2 demonstrates that although loneliness is correlated with measures of negative affect, social risk taking, and affiliative tendencies, it is nonetheless a distinct psychological experience.

Developing a measure of loneliness.

Research on loneliness has been hindered by the lack of a simple and reliable assessment technique. The development of the UCLA Loneliness Scale, a short, 20-item general measure of loneliness is reported. The measure has high internal consistency (coefficient alpha = .96) and a test-retest correlation over a two-month period of .73. Concurrent and preliminary construct validity are indicated by correlations with self-reports of current loneliness and related emotional states, and by volunteering for a "loneliness clinic."