Single-cell Screening Method for the Selection and Recovery of Antibodies with Desired Specificities from Enriched Human Memory B Cell Populations.

The human antibody repertoire represents a largely untapped source of potential therapeutic antibodies and useful biomarkers. While current computational methods, such as next generation sequencing (NGS), yield enormous sets of data on the antibody repertoire at the sequence level, functional data is required to identify which sequences are relevant for a particular antigen or set of antigens. Here, we describe a method to identify and recover individual antigen-specific antibodies from peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) from a human blood donor. This method utilizes an initial enrichment of mature B cells and requires a combination of phenotypic cell markers and fluorescently-labeled protein to isolate IgG memory B cells via flow cytometry. The heavy and light chain variable regions are then cloned and re-screened. Although limited to the memory B cell compartment, this method takes advantage of flow cytometry to interrogate millions of B cells and returns paired heavy and light chain sequences from a single cell in a format ready for expression and confirmation of specificity. Antibodies recovered with this method can be considered for therapeutic potential, but can also link specificity and function with bioinformatic approaches to assess the B cell repertoire within individuals.

An iminosugar with potent inhibition of dengue virus infection in vivo.

The aim of the present study was to evaluate the ability of the iminosugar drug UV-4 to provide in vivo protection from lethal dengue virus (DENV) challenge. This study utilized a well-described model of dengue hemorrhagic fever/dengue shock syndrome (DHF/DSS)-like lethal disease in AG129 mice lacking the type I and II interferon receptors. Herein, we present UV-4 as a potent iminosugar for controlling DENV infection and disease in this mouse model. Specifically, administration of UV-4 reduced mortality, as well as viremia and viral RNA in key tissues, and cytokine storm. In addition, UV-4 treatment can be delayed, and it does not alter the anti-DENV antibody response. These results have set the foundation for development of UV-4 as a DENV-specific antiviral in phase I human clinical trials.

Tracking the evolution of dengue virus strains D2S10 and D2S20 by 454 pyrosequencing.

Dengue virus is the most prevalent mosquito-borne virus worldwide. In this study, we used pyrosequencing to analyze the whole viral genome of two mouse-adapted strains, D2S10 and D2S20, that induce a dengue hemorrhagic fever/dengue shock syndrome (DHF/DSS)-like lethal disease in mice lacking the type I and/or type II interferon receptors. Previous experiments with D2S10 indicated that N124D and K128E mutations in the envelope protein were responsible for the severe disease induced in mice compared to its parental strain PL046. Here we demonstrate that D2S20 is more virulent than D2S10 and captured the presence of five key amino acid mutations--T70I, N83D, and K122I in envelope (E), and A62T in nonstructural protein 2A (NS2A) and G605V in nonstructural protein 5 (NS5)--that may account for this. These findings set the foundation for further dissection of the viral determinants responsible for dengue disease manifestations in mouse models.

Inhibition of dengue virus infections in cell cultures and in AG129 mice by a small interfering RNA targeting a highly conserved sequence.

The dengue viruses (DENVs) exist as numerous genetic strains that are grouped into four antigenically distinct serotypes. DENV strains from each serotype can cause severe disease and threaten public health in tropical and subtropical regions worldwide. No licensed antiviral agent to treat DENV infections is currently available, and there is an acute need for the development of novel therapeutics. We found that a synthetic small interfering RNA (siRNA) (DC-3) targeting the highly conserved 5' cyclization sequence (5'CS) region of the DENV genome reduced, by more than 100-fold, the titers of representative strains from each DENV serotype in vitro. To determine if DC-3 siRNA could inhibit DENV in vivo, an "in vivo-ready" version of DC-3 was synthesized and tested against DENV-2 by using a mouse model of antibody-dependent enhancement of infection (ADE)-induced disease. Compared with the rapid weight loss and 5-day average survival time of the control groups, mice receiving the DC-3 siRNA had an average survival time of 15 days and showed little weight loss for approximately 12 days. DC-3-treated mice also contained significantly less virus than control groups in several tissues at various time points postinfection. These results suggest that exogenously introduced siRNA combined with the endogenous RNA interference processing machinery has the capacity to prevent severe dengue disease. Overall, the data indicate that DC-3 siRNA represents a useful research reagent and has potential as a novel approach to therapeutic intervention against the genetically diverse dengue viruses.

STAT2 mediates innate immunity to Dengue virus in the absence of STAT1 via the type I interferon receptor.

Dengue virus (DENV) is a mosquito-borne flavivirus, and symptoms of infection range from asymptomatic to the severe dengue hemorrhagic fever/dengue shock syndrome (DHF/DSS). High viral loads correlate with disease severity, and both type I & II interferons (IFNs) are crucial for controlling viral replication. We have previously reported that signal transducer and activator of transcription (STAT) 1-deficient mice are resistant to DENV-induced disease, but little is known about this STAT1-independent mechanism of protection. To determine the molecular basis of the STAT1-independent pathway, mice lacking STAT1, STAT2, or both STAT1 and STAT2 were infected with a virulent mouse-adapted strain of DENV2. In the first 72 hours of infection, the single-deficient mice lacking STAT1 or STAT2 possessed 50-100 fold higher levels of viral RNA than wild type mice in the serum, spleen, and other visceral tissues, but remained resistant to DENV-induced death. In contrast, the double-deficient mice exhibited the early death phenotype previously observed in type I and II IFN receptor knockout mice (AG129), indicating that STAT2 is the mediator of the STAT1-independent host defense mechanism. Further studies demonstrated that this STAT2-dependent STAT1-independent mechanism requires the type I IFN receptor, and contributes to the autocrine amplification of type I IFN expression. Examination of gene expression in the spleen and bone marrow-derived macrophages following DENV infection revealed STAT2-dependent pathways can induce the transcription of a subset of interferon stimulated genes even in the absence of STAT1. Collectively, these results help elucidate the nature of the poorly understood STAT1-independent host defense mechanism against viruses by identifying a functional type I IFN/STAT2 signaling pathway following DENV infection in vivo.

Important advances in the field of anti-dengue virus research.

There are currently no licensed antivirals available for the treatment of dengue virus (DENV), which causes significant morbidity and mortality throughout tropical areas of the world and is now encroaching on the southern United States. Recent improvements in existing animal models and cell culture systems have been very important in elucidating the mechanisms of DENV pathogenesis in humans, including the identification of potential viral and host proteins that might be targeted for the treatment of DENV infection. The AG129 mouse model is a major advance in the development of antiviral and vaccine candidates for clinical use. It allows for testing of potential therapeutics in a relevant system that exhibits some aspects of disease that are similar to those observed in humans. This review focuses on recent developments in the AG129 mouse model and discusses compounds that have been found to be active in available cell and animal model systems within the past year.

Cardif-mediated signaling controls the initial innate response to dengue virus in vivo.

The role of Cardif-dependent signaling in controlling dengue virus (DENV) infection and regulating type I interferon (IFN) production in vivo was examined in Cardif-deficient mice. DENV RNA levels were significantly elevated in both the serum and lymphoid tissues of Cardif(-/-) mice at early times compared to those in wild-type animals. Type I IFN production was delayed in these locales of Cardif(-/-) mice until 18 h postinfection, indicating that Cardif regulates the initial type I IFN response in lymphoid tissues. In contrast, DENV viral loads in nonlymphoid tissues were similar between Cardif(-/-) and wild-type mice. These results reveal that RNA helicase-mediated sensing acts as a first line of innate defense against DENV infection in vivo and functions in a tissue-dependent manner.

Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus virions inhibit interferon responses induced by envelope glycoprotein gpK8.1.

The Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV) envelope glycoprotein gpK8.1 contributes to cellular attachment through binding cell surface heparan sulfate proteoglycans. By using a soluble recombinant form of gpK8.1, we discovered that a consequence of gpK8.1 interaction with human fibroblasts is the induction of an antiviral response, as characterized by the activation of interferon regulatory factor 3 (IRF-3), production of interferon beta (IFN-beta), and expression of interferon-stimulated antiviral genes. In contrast, neither IFN-beta expression nor a functional antiviral response is observed in cells treated with KSHV virions. The interferon response induced by soluble gpK8.1 can be inhibited by simultaneous treatment with UV-inactivated virions, while the induction of an indicator inflammatory cytokine, interleukin-6, was readily evident in the response to both gpK8.1 and KSHV. In addition, KSHV virions abrogate gpK8.1-mediated activation of IRF-3, an early transcriptional regulator for cellular antiviral responses. Although innate immune responses are initiated during contact between gpK8.1 and cellular receptor(s), these results suggest that the virion contains one or more structural elements that selectively repress an effective antiviral response while allowing cellular responses favorable to the KSHV life cycle.

Human cytomegalovirus elicits a coordinated cellular antiviral response via envelope glycoprotein B.

Previous studies have shown that human cytomegalovirus (CMV) is a potent elicitor of interferon-stimulated gene (ISG) expression. Induction of the interferon pathway does not require replication-competent virus, and envelope glycoprotein B (gB) from CMV is a viral structural component that can directly induce transcription of ISGs. Here we extend these earlier findings by defining the consequences of inducing the interferon pathway. We found that cells respond to CMV or soluble gB by establishing a functional antiviral state within cell types critical in CMV biology, such as fibroblasts and endothelial cells. We have also discovered new insights into the mechanism by which the pathway is initiated. Interferon regulatory factor 3 (IRF3), a key transcriptional regulator of cellular interferon responses, is activated by CMV virions and soluble gB. Thus, IRF3 becomes activated via "outside-in" signal transduction events. This is a novel mechanism of activation of this key transcription factor by viruses. In comparison to soluble gB (gB(1-750)), which comprises the entire ectodomain of gB, a truncation mutant encompassing only the amino-terminal region of gB (gB(1-460)) was markedly less effective at inducing antiviral responses. This indicates that the region of gB from residues 461 to 750 is important for initiation of the antiviral response. In addition, CMV and gB establish an antiviral state in alpha/beta interferon null cells, illustrating that primary induction of ISGs by CMV and gB is sufficient to establish the antiviral response and that interferon secretion is not necessary for the antiviral effect. Taken together, our findings reveal that CMV initiates a coordinated antiviral response through contact between gB and an as-yet-unidentified cell surface receptor(s).