The response surface methodology speeds up the search for optimal parameters in the photoinactivation of E. coli by photodynamic therapy.

Antimicrobial Photodynamic Inactivation (a-PDI) is based on the oxidative destruction of biological molecules by reactive oxygen species generated by the photo-excitation of a photosensitive molecule. When a-PDT is performed with the use of mathematical models, the optimal conditions for maximum inactivation are found. Experimental designs allow a multivariate analysis of the experimental parameters. This is usually made using a univariate approach, which demands a large number of experiments, being time and money consuming. This paper presents the use of the response surface methodology for improving the search for the best conditions to reduce E. coli survival levels by a-PDT using methylene blue (MB) and toluidine blue (TB) as photosensitizers and white light. The goal was achieved by analyzing the effects and interactions of the three main parameters involved in the process: incubation time (IT), photosensitizer concentration (CPS), and light dose (LD). The optimization procedure began with a full 23 factorial design, followed by a central composite one, in which the optimal conditions were estimated. For MB, CPS was the most important parameter followed by LD and IT whereas, for TB, the main parameter was LD followed by CPS and IT. Using the estimated optimal conditions for inactivation, MB was able to inactivate 99.999999% CFU mL-1 of E. coli with IT of 28 min, LD of 31 J cm-2, and CPS of 32 µmol L-1, while TB required 18 min, 39 J cm-2, and 37 µmol L-1. The feasibility of using the response surface methodology with a-PDT was demonstrated, enabling enhanced photoinactivation efficiency and fast results with a minimal number of experiments.

Red light accelerates the formation of a human dermal equivalent.

Development of biomaterials' substitutes and/or equivalents to mimic normal tissue is a current challenge in tissue engineering. Thus, three-dimensional cell culture using type I collagen as a polymeric matrix cell support designed to promote cell proliferation and differentiation was employed to create a dermal equivalent in vitro, as well to evaluate the photobiomodulation using red light. Polymeric matrix cell support was prepared from porcine serous collagen (1.1%) hydrolyzed for 96 h. The biomaterial exhibited porosity of 95%, a median pore of 44 µm and channels with an average distance between the walls of 78 ± 14 µm. The absorption of culture medium was 95%, and the sponge showed no cytotoxicity to Vero cells, a non-tumor cell line. Additionally, it was observed that irradiation with light at 630 nm (fluency 30 J cm-2) leads to the cellular photobiomodulation in both monolayer and human dermal equivalent (three-dimensional cell culture system). It was also verified that the cells cultured in the presence of the polymeric matrix cell support, allows differentiation and extracellular matrix secretion. Therefore, the results showed that the collagen sponge used as polymeric matrix cell support and the photobiomodulation at 630 nm are efficient for the production of a reconstructed human dermal equivalent in vitro.

Phototoxicity in a laryngeal cancer cell line enhanced by a targeting amphiphilic chlorin photosensitizer.

BACKGROUND: Photodynamic therapy (PDT) has been established in several countries as an alternative therapy for the treatment of various malignancies. This therapy involves the incorporation of a photosensitizer (PS) that is activated by visible light and form reactive oxygen species leading to target cell death by apoptosis or necrosis. Previously, our group has demonstrated that CHL-T (semi-synthesized from chlorophyll a and containing a linked solubilizing group TRISMA®) presented a pronounced potential to induce death in HeLa cell line after PDT. In the present study, besides confirm the high cytotoxicity in another cell line, we have further investigated the cell death mechanisms caused by CHL-T as a photosensitizer in laryngeal carcinoma cells. METHODS: Cells were exposed to different concentrations of three photosensitizers, namely, hypericin (HY), unmodified chlorin (CHL) and a synthesized amphiphilic chlorin derivative (CHL-T). PSs accumulation and localization were accessed by fluorescence assays. Photosensitization was induced at 6Jcm-2 using red LEDs (630±10nm). Viability was assessed by mitochondrial function (MTT); whereas apoptosis/necrosis was evaluated by fluorescence microscopy and flow cytometry. Expression of pro-apoptotic p53 protein was studied by Western blot. RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS: All PS showed similar localization profile in the HEp-2 cells. The use of CHL-T increased the percentage of apoptotic cells and also p53 expression in comparison with the use of HY and CHL as photosensitizers. This study shows a significant effect of CHLT associated with red light (630±10nm and 18mWcm-2) irradiation on a cancer cell line, indicating the potential of this amphiphilic chlorin in enhancing the therapeutic effectiveness of Photodynamic Therapy (PDT).

Semi-synthesis and PDT activities of a new amphiphilic chlorin derivative.

An amphiphilic chlorin derivative (CHL-T) was prepared from methylpheophorbide a (CHL) and 2-Amino-2-(hydroxymethyl)-1,3-propanediol (TRISMA®). The new chlorin was compared to other dyes (CHL and Hypericin) in relation to photophysical and photobiological activities in tumor and non-tumor cell lines. Cytotoxicity and cell death target were determined to evaluate the CHL-T efficiency, comparing to the precursor CHL and to the well-known dye hypericin (HY). All of the studied compounds exhibited absorption bands in the therapeutic window and presented a small fluorescence quantum yield compared to the reference dye (rhodamine B). CHL-T was about three times more efficient on singlet oxygen generation than the others photosensitizers. The lipophilicity order of the photosensitizers was CHL>HY>CHL-T. The tumoral HeLa cells presented improved accumulation for CHL and CHL-T compared to HY. The phototoxicity presented by the CHL-T was about ten times higher than by CHL, as demonstrated by the MTT assay. CHL-T showed more cytotoxicity to tumoral cell, comparing to non-tumoral cell in short incubation time. The cell death rises proportionally with increasing PSs concentrations, mainly by necrosis. These findings suggest that CHL-T is a potential new photosensitizer for PDT.

Photochemical Deposition of Silver Nanoparticles on Clays and Exploring Their Antibacterial Activity.

Photochemical method was used to synthesize silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) in the presence of citrate or clay (SWy-1, SYn-1, and Laponite B) as stabilizers and Lucirin TPO as photoinitiator. During the photochemical synthesis, an appearance of the plasmon absorption band was seen around 400 nm, indicating the formation of AgNPs. X-ray diffraction results suggested that AgNPs prepared in SWy-1 were adsorbed into interlamellar space, and moreover, showed some clay exfoliation. In the case of SYn-1, AgNPs was not intercalated. For the AgNP/Lap B sample, the formation of an exfoliated structure occurred. Transmission electron microscopy revealed the spherical shape of AgNPs for all samples. The particle sizes obtained for AgNP/SWy-1, AgNP/SYn-1, and AgNP/Lap B were 2.6, 5.1, and 3.8 nm, respectively. AgNPs adsorbed on SYn-1 reveal nonuniform size and aggregation of some particles. However, AgNP/SWy-1 and AgNP/Lap B samples are more uniform and have diameters smaller than those prepared with SYn-1. This behavior is due to the ability to exfoliate these clays. The antibacterial activities of pure clays, AgNP/citrate, and AgNP/clays were investigated against Escherichia coli (E. coli) and Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus). AgNPs in the presence of clays (AgNPs/SYn-1 and AgNPs/SWy-1) showed a lower survival index percentage compared to those obtained for pure clays and AgNPs. The AgNP/SWy-1 sample showed good antibacterial activity against both tested species and the lowest survival index of 3.9 and 4.3 against E. coli and S. aureus, respectively. AgNPs are located in the interlayer region of the SWy-1, which has acid sites. These acidic sites may contribute to the release of Ag(+) ions from the surface of AgNPs. On the other hand, Laponite B and AgNP/Lap B samples did not demonstrate any bactericidal activity.

Photodynamic efficiency of hypericin compared with chlorin and hematoporphyrin derivatives in HEp-2 and Vero epithelial cell lines.

Hypericin (HY) is a photoactive aromatic dianthraquinone that is considered a potent photodynamic agent. In this study, hypericin and two other photosensitizers, a hematoporphyrin derivative (Photogem(®); PG) and a chlorin derivative (Photodithazine(®); PZ), were compared in terms of their phototoxicity toward two cell lines, HEp-2 and Vero. The median inhibitory concentration (IC(50)) of each of the photosensitizers was obtained after a 16.2J cm(-2) dose of irradiation at 630 ± 10 nm. The IC(50) values were 0.07 ± 0.01 (HY), 1.0 ± 0.2 (PZ), and 9 ± 1 µgmL(-1) (PG) in HEp-2 cells and 0.3 ± 0.1 (HY), 1.6 ± 0.2 (PZ) and 11 ± 1 µgmL(-1) (PG) in Vero cells, showing that HY is more phototoxic than the others when irradiated at 630 nm. If these results are analyzed, simultaneously, with the first-order constant for BSA tryptophan photooxidation, obtained by fluorescence decay (λ(excitation)=280 nm), which are 11×10(-3) min(-1)±1. 10(-3) min(-1) (HY), 10 × 10(-3) min(-1)±1 × 10(-3) min(-1) (PZ), and 6 × 10(-3)min(-1) ± 1×10(-3)min(-1) (PG), it is possible to infer that the photodynamic efficiency alone is not sufficient to explain the higher HY phototoxicity. The lipophilicity is also an important factor for an efficient target cell accumulation and was assessed for all sensitizers through the octanol-water partition coefficient (log P): 1.20 ± 0.02 (HY), -0.62 ± 0.03 (PZ), and -0.9 ± 0.2 (PG). The higher value for HY correlates well with its observed superior efficiency to promote damage at low concentrations and doses. As HY is used for the long-term treatment of mild depression, it is considered safe for humans. This fact and the present results reinforce the great potential of this photosensitizer to replace porphyrin derivatives, with the advantages that mean it could be used as photosensitizer in clinical photodynamic therapy.

Hypericin encapsulated in solid lipid nanoparticles: phototoxicity and photodynamic efficiency.

The hydrophobicity of some photosensitizers can induce aggregation in biological systems, which consequently reduces photodynamic activity. The conjugation of photosensitizers with nanocarrier systems can potentially be used to overcome this problem. The objective of this study was to prepare and characterise hypericin-loaded solid lipid nanoparticles (Hy-SLN) for use in photodynamic therapy (PDT). SLN were prepared using the ultrasonication technique, and their physicochemical properties were characterised. The mean particle size was found to be 153 nm, with a low polydispersity index of 0.28. One of the major advantages of the SLN formulation is its high entrapment efficiency (EE%). Hy-SLN showed greater than 80% EE and a drug loading capacity of 5.22% (w/w). To determine the photodynamic efficiency of Hy before and after encapsulation in SLN, the rate constants for the photodecomposition of two (1)O2 trapping reagents, DPBF and AU, were determined. These rate constants exhibited an increase of 60% and 50% for each method, respectively, which is most likely due to an increase in the lifetime of the triplet state caused by the increase in solubility. Hy-SLN presented a 30% increase in cell uptake and a correlated improvement of 26% in cytotoxicity. Thus, all these advantages suggest that Hy-loaded SLN has potential for use in PDT.

Photodynamic inactivation of biofilm: taking a lightly colored approach to stubborn infection.

Microbial biofilms are responsible for a variety of microbial infections in different parts of the body, such as urinary tract infections, catheter infections, middle-ear infections, gingivitis, caries, periodontitis, orthopedic implants, and so on. The microbial biofilm cells have properties and gene expression patterns distinct from planktonic cells, including phenotypic variations in enzymic activity, cell wall composition and surface structure, which increase the resistance to antibiotics and other antimicrobial treatments. There is consequently an urgent need for new approaches to attack biofilm-associated microorganisms, and antimicrobial photodynamic therapy (aPDT) may be a promising candidate. aPDT involves the combination of a nontoxic dye and low-intensity visible light which, in the presence of oxygen, produces cytotoxic reactive oxygen species. It has been demonstrated that many biofilms are susceptible to aPDT, particularly in dental disease. This review will focus on aspects of aPDT that are designed to increase efficiency against biofilms modalities to enhance penetration of photosensitizer into biofilm, and a combination of aPDT with biofilm-disrupting agents.