Pharmacological Properties of Ginsenoside Re.

Ginsenoside Re is a protopanaxatriol-type saponin extracted from the berry, leaf, stem, flower bud, and root of Panax ginseng. In recent years, ginsenoside Re (Re) has been attracting attention as a dietary phytochemical. In this review, studies on Re were compiled by searching a combination of keywords, namely "pharmacology," "pharmacokinetics," and "toxicology," in the Google Scholar, NCBI, PubMed, and Web of Science databases. The aim of this review was to provide an exhaustive overview of the pharmacological activities, pharmacokinetics, and toxicity of Re, focusing on clinical evidence that has shown effectiveness in specific diseases, such as diabetes mellitus, nervous system diseases, inflammation, cardiovascular disease, and cancer. Re is also known to eliminate virus, enhance the immune response, improve osteoporosis, improve skin barrier function, enhance intracellular anti-oxidant actions, regulate cholesterol metabolism, alleviate allergic responses, increase sperm motility, reduce erectile dysfunction, promote cyclic growth of hair follicles, and reduce gastrointestinal motility dysfunction. Furthermore, this review provides data on pharmacokinetic parameters and toxicological factors to examine the safety profile of Re. Such data will provide a theoretical basis and reference for Re-related studies and future applications.

Corosolic Acid Attenuates Hepatic Lipid Accumulation and Inflammatory Response via AMPK/SREBPs and NF-κB/MAPK Signaling Pathways.

Corosolic acid (CA) is the main active component of Lagetstroemia speciosa and has been known to serve as several different pharmacological effects, such as antidiabetic, anti-oxidant, and anticancer effects. In this study, effects of CA on the hepatic lipid accumulation were examined using HepG2 cells and tyloxapol (TY)-induced hyperlipidemia ICR mice. CA significantly inhibited hepatic lipid accumulation via inhibition of SREBPs, and its target genes FAS, SCD1, and HMGCR transcription in HepG2 cells. These effects were mediated through activation of AMPK, and these effects were all abolished in the presence of compound C (CC, an AMPK inhibitor). In addition, CA clearly alleviated serum ALT, AST, TG, TC, low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C), and increased high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C) levels, and obviously attenuated TY-induced liver steatosis and inflammation. Moreover, CA significantly upregulated AMPK, ACC, LKB1 phosphorylation, and significantly inhibited lipin1, SREBPs, TNF-α, F4/80, caspase-1 expression, NF-κB translocation, and MAPK activation in TY-induced hyperlipidemia mice. Our results suggest that CA is a potent antihyperlipidemia and antihepatic steatosis agent and the mechanism involved both lipogenesis and cholesterol synthesis and inflammation response inhibition via AMPK/SREBPs and NF-κB/MAPK signaling pathways.

Tetrahydropalmatine inhibits lipid accumulation through AMPK signaling pathway in 3T3­L1 adipocytes.

Tetrahydropalmatine (THP), one of the active components of Rhizoma corydalis, has been reported to exert several pharmacological effects, including anti­inflammatory, anti­tumor and analgesic activities. However, its effect on obesity and the underlying molecular mechanisms that may be involved have not yet been elucidated. In the present study, the inhibitory effects of THP on the adipogenesis in 3T3­L1 adipocytes was examined using hstology, western blotting and RT­qPCR. THP was identified to significantly suppress lipid accumulation in 3T3­L1 cells and it inhibited pre­adipocyte differentiation in a concentration­dependent manner, as evidenced by the reduced formation of lipid droplets and decreased triglyceride levels and glycerol­3­phosphate dehydrogenase activity. THP downregulated the adipogenesis­associated protein and gene expressions of sterol regulatory element­binding protein 1, fatty acid synthase, stearoyl­CoA desaturase 1, peroxisome proliferator activated receptor γ and CCAAT/enhancer binding protein­α in a concentration­dependent manner. In addition, it reduced adipocyte fatty acid binding protein and glycerol­3­phosphate acyltransferase gene expression in a concentration­dependent manner. Conversely, THP increased the mRNA expression of carnitine palmitoyltransferase 1 in a concentration­dependent manner. Furthermore, THP increased AMP­activated protein kinase (AMPK) and acetyl­CoA carboxylase phosphorylation in a concentration­dependent manner. These results suggested that anti­adipogenic activity of TPH may be mediated via the AMPK pathway in 3T3­L1 cells.

Synthesis of 5-alkoxythieno[2,3-e][1,2,4]triazolo[4,3-c]pyrimidine derivatives and evaluation of their anticonvulsant activities.

This work concerns the design and synthesis of novel, substituted 5-alkoxythieno[2,3-e][1,2,4]triazolo[4,3-c]pyrimidine derivatives 5a-p prepared from 3-amino-2-thiophenecarboxylic acid methyl ester. The final compounds were screened for their in vivo anticonvulsant activity using maximal electroshock (MES) and subcutaneous pentylenetetrazole (scPTZ) tests. Neurotoxicity (NT) was tested using a rotarod test. The structure-anticonvulsant activity relationship analysis revealed that the most effective structural motif involves a substituted phenol, especially when substituted with a single chlorine, fluorine or trifluoromethyl group (at the meta-position), or two chlorine atoms. These molecules possessed high activity according to the MES and scPTZ models. Quantitative assessment of the compounds after intraperitoneal administration in mice showed that the most active compound was 5-[3-(trifluoromethyl)phenoxy]thieno[2,3-e] [1,2,4]triazolo[4,3-c]pyrimidine (5o) with ED50 values of 11.5 mg/kg (MES) and 58.9 mg/kg (scPTZ). Furthermore, compound 5o was more effective in the MES and scPTZ tests than the well-known anticonvulsant drugs carbamazepine and ethosuximide.

Cytotoxic fraction from Artemisia sacrorum Ledeb. against three human cancer cell lines and separation and identification of its compounds.

Artemisia sacrorum Ledeb. was extracted by 95% ethanol and water, respectively. By partitioning the 95% ethanol extract successively with different solvents and separating the water extract by macroporous resin, nine separate parts were obtained. According to the results of in vitro experiments, the CH2Cl2 (dichloromethane) fraction showed the most pronounced cytotoxic activity against HepG2, HT-29 and MCF-7 cells, with EC50 values 122.35, 49.76 and 28.51 µg mL⁻¹, respectively, at 48 h. Following this, the compounds of the CH2Cl2 fraction were separated and identified. Ten compounds were isolated from A. sacrorum Ledeb. and identified by spectral analysis. Four compounds, including acacetin, were isolated for the first time from A. sacrorum Ledeb.

An active part of Artemisia sacrorum Ledeb. suppresses gluconeogenesis through AMPK mediated GSK3ß and CREB phosphorylation in human HepG2 cells.

In this study, we investigated the effects of a petroleum ether fraction of Artemisia sacrorum Ledeb. (Compositae) (PEASL) on glucose production through AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) activation in human HepG2 cells. PEASL significantly inhibited glucose production in a concentration-dependent manner, and this effect was reversed in the presence of compound C, a selective AMPK inhibitor. PEASL markedly induced the phosphorylation of AMPK and downstream acetyl-CoA carboxylase (ACC) in a time- and concentration-dependent manner. In addition, it markedly increased the phosphorylations of glycogen synthase kinase 3ß (GSK3ß) in a concentration-dependent manner. In contrast, cAMP response element binding protein (CREB), a key transcription factor for gluconeogenic enzyme phosphorylation, decreased in a concentration-dependent manner. PEASL downregulated the gluconeogenesis gene expression of peroxisome proliferation activated receptor-γ coactivator-1α (PGC-1α), phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase (PEPCK), and glucose-6-phosphatase (G6Pase) in a concentration-dependent manner. In addition, the gene expression of orphan nuclear receptor small heterodimer partner (SHP) increased, also in a concentration-dependent manner. These effects were also abolished by pretreatment with compound C, an AMPK inhibitor. This indicates that PEASL inhibited glucose production via the AMPK-GSK-CREB pathway in HepG2 cells, and these effects appeared to be capable of revealing anti-diabetic mechanism of PEASL in HepG2 cells.

An active part of Artemisia sacrorum Ledeb. inhibits adipogenesis via the AMPK signaling pathway in 3T3-L1 adipocytes.

Artemisia sacrorum Ledeb. (Compositae) (ASL) has long been used in Oriental folk medicine to treat diverse hepatic diseases. In this study, we investigated the effect of ASL on adipocyte differentiation in 3T3-L1 cells. ASL significantly suppressed 3T3-L1 differentiation in a concentration-dependent manner. A significant increase of AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) was observed when the cells were treated with ASL. Activation of AMPK was also demonstrated by measuring the phosphorylation of acetyl-CoA carboxylase, a substrate of AMPK. These effects were abolished by pre-treatment with the AMPK inhibitor, compound C. In addition, ASL down-regulated the adipogenesis-related gene expression of the sterol regulatory element-binding protein 1c (SREBP1c) and its target genes, such as fatty acid synthase (FAS), stearoyl-CoA desaturase 1 (SCD1) and glycerol-3-phosphate acyltransferase (GPAT) in a concentration-dependent manner. These effects were abolished by pre-treatment with compound C. ASL significantly reduced the gene expression of the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ (PPARγ) and of the CCAAT/enhancer binding protein-α (C/EBPα), two key transcription factors in adipogenesis. Meanwhile, adipocyte fatty acid binding protein (aP2) gene expression was also reduced in a concentration-dependent manner. These findings indicated that ASL exerts anti-adipogenic activity via AMPK activation and may act to prevent obesity.

An active part of Artemisia sacrorum Ledeb. attenuates hepatic lipid accumulation through activating AMP-activated protein kinase in human HepG2 cells.

Artemisia sacrorum Ledeb. (Compositae) (ASL) is a traditional Chinese medicine used to treat different hepatic diseases. However, a hypolipidemic effect of ASL on fatty liver disease has not been reported. Therefore, we investigated whether 95% ethanol eluate (EE), an active part of ASL, would attenuate hepatic lipid accumulation in human HepG2 cells by activating AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK). Significant decreases in triglyceride levels and increases in AMPK and acetyl-CoA carboxylase (ACC) phosphorylation were observed when the cells were treated with 95% EE. EE down-regulated the lipogenesis gene expression of sterol regulatory element-binding protein 1c (SREBP1c) and its target genes, such as fatty acid synthase (FAS) and stearoyl-CoA desaturase 1 (SCD1), in a time- and dose-dependent manner. In contrast, the lipolytic gene expression of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha (PPAR-alpha) and CD36 increased in a time- and dose-dependent manner. These effects were abolished by pretreatment with compound C, an AMPK inhibitor. However, there were no differences in the gene expression of SREBP2, low density lipoprotein receptor (LDLR), hydroxymethyl glutaryl CoA reductase (HMG-CoA), or glucose transporter 2 (GLUT2). At the same time, 95% EE significantly increased the gene expression of acyl CoA oxidase (ACOX) in a time- and dose-dependent manner. Thus, AMPK mediated 95% EE induced suppression of SREBP1c and activation of PPAR-alpha respectively. These finding indicate that 95% EE attenuates hepatic lipid accumulation through AMPK activation and may be active in the prevention of serious diseases such as fatty liver, obesity, and type-2 diabetic mellitus.

Hepatoprotective effects of an active part from Artemisia sacrorum Ledeb. against acetaminophen-induced toxicity in mice.

AIMS OF STUDY: Although Artemisia sacrorum Ledeb. (Compositae) has long been used as one kind of oriental folk medicine to treat some liver diseases, the underlying mechanism(s) by which these effects are induced remains to be defined. This study was designed to investigate the hepatoprotective effects of 50% ethanol eluate precipitation of Artemisia sacrorum Ledeb. (EEP) on acetaminophen (APAP)-induced toxicity in mice. MATERIALS AND METHODS: The levels of aspartate aminotransferase (AST), alanine aminotransferase (ALT), and tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha) levels in mouse sera, and glutathione (GSH), malondialdehyde (MDA) in mouse liver tissues were measured. In addition, apoptosis and necrosis were evaluated by liver histopathological analysis and DNA laddering. Moreover, caspase-3 and -8 protein expressions in mouse livers were observed by Western blot analysis. RESULTS: Pretreated with EEP prior to the administration of APAP significantly prevented the increases of AST, ALT, and TNF-alpha levels in sera, and suppressed the GSH depletion, MDA accumulation in liver tissues markedly. In addition, EEP prevented APAP-induced apoptosis and necrosis, as indicated by liver histopathological analysis, immunohistochemical analysis, and DNA laddering. Furthermore, according to the results from Western blot analysis, EEP decreased APAP-induced caspase-3 and caspase-8 protein expressions in mouse livers markedly. CONCLUSION: All these results suggest that the protective effects of EEP against APAP-induced liver injury may involve mechanisms associated with its inhibitive effects of lipid peroxidation and the down-regulation of TNF-alpha mediated apoptosis. In a word, EEP could be a valuable candidate for further development for prevention and treatment of hepatic injury.

Protective Effects of the Supernatant of Ethanol Eluate from Artemisia sacrorum Ledeb. against Acetaminophen-Induced Liver Injury in Mice [corrected].

This study was designed to investigate the protective effects of the active part of Artemisia sacrorum Ledeb. Extract (ASE) against acetaminophen (APAP)-induced hepatotoxicity in mice. As a result, pretreated with ASE prior to the administration of APAP significantly prevented the increases of aspartate aminotransferase (AST), alanine aminotransferase (ALT), and tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha) levels in serum, and glutathione (GSH) depletion, malondialdehyde (MDA) accumulation in liver tissue. In addition, ASE prevented APAP-induced apoptosis and necrosis, as indicated by a liver histopathological analysis and DNA laddering. Furthermore, according to the results from Western blot analysis, ASE markedly decreased APAP-induced caspase-3 and -8 protein expressions in mouse livers. All these results suggest that the protective effects of ASE against APAP-induced liver injury may involve mechanisms associated with its inhibitive effects of lipid peroxidation and the down-regulation of TNF-alpha mediated apoptosis.