Microclimatic conditions and their effects on sheep behavior during a live export shipment from Australia to the Middle East.

The microclimate can potentially impact the health and welfare of livestock exported by ship. Within-pen microclimatic conditions were recorded and the effects of ammonia on sheep behavior investigated on a voyage from Australia to the Middle East. Ammonia, carbon dioxide, and hydrogen sulfide as well as wet-bulb, dry-bulb, and dew-point temperature and air speed were mapped in 20 open-deck focal pens, with the focus on the behavior and location of a marked sheep in each pen. Air speed was highly variable in most pens, with pockets of high but transient concentrations of ammonia (30.7 to 44.2 mg/m(3)) in 20% of pens that had no or minimal air flow. Carbon dioxide concentrations varied in some pens, but overall concentrations of carbon dioxide and hydrogen sulfide were low. Sheep in pens previously identified to have high ammonia concentrations, high wet-bulb temperatures, and low wind speed stood longer (P = 0.003) and spent less time feeding (P = 0.01) and ruminating (P = 0.004) than those in pens previously identified with low ammonia, low wet-bulb temperature, and high wind speed. Moreover, sheep exposed to increased ammonia concentrations held their head higher (P = 0.004) to avoid the greater ammonia concentrations at lower heights, and these sheep had more conjunctivitis (P < 0.001). Sheep movement around the pen was limited. Increased time spent lying down (P = 0.04) and more rhythmical behavior in the second half of the voyage indicated that the sheep adjusted to shipboard conditions over time. It is concluded that high, transient concentrations of ammonia existed in some pens, which adversely affected the behavior of sheep.

Physiological and behavioral responses of sheep to gaseous ammonia.

Ammonia can accumulate in highly stocked sheep accommodation, for example during live export shipments, and could affect sheep health and welfare. Thus, the objective of this experiment was to test the effects of 4 NH(3) concentrations, 4 (control), 12, 21, and 34 mg/m(3), on the physiology and behavior of wether sheep. Sheep were held for 12 d under a micro-climate and stocking density similar to shipboard conditions recorded on voyages from Australia to the Middle East during the northern hemispheric summer. Ammonia increased macrophage activity in transtracheal aspirations, indicating active pulmonary inflammation; however, it had no effect (P > 0.05) on hematological variables. Feed intake decreased (P = 0.002) in proportion to ammonia concentration, and BW gain decreased (P < 0.001) at the 2 greatest concentrations. Exposure to ammonia increased (P = 0.03) the frequency of sneezing, and at the greatest ammonia concentration, sheep were less active, with less locomotion, pawing, and panting. Twenty-eight days after exposure to NH(3), the pulmonary macrophage activity and BW of the sheep returned to that of sheep exposed to only 4 mg/m(3). It was concluded that NH(3) induced a temporary inflammatory response of the respiratory system and reduced BW gain, which together indicated a transitory adverse effect on the welfare of sheep.

Accumulation of ammonia and other potentially noxious gases on live export shipments from Australia to the Middle East.

Noxious gases on ships are irritant pollutants that have potential impacts on the comfort and health of both livestock and humans. Identification of environmental influences on the pollutants will assist live exporters to control them. Ammonia, hydrogen sulphide and carbon dioxide, as well as wet and dry bulb temperature, dew point, air speed and depth of faeces that the sheep stood in, were measured on two ship voyages in which sheep were transported from Australia to the Middle East. Daily measurements were made at 20 measurement locations over 12 days. At four sites, the mean ammonia concentration for the voyage was above the recommended maximum limit for the live export industry (25 ppm). The mean ammonia concentrations at the remaining 16 sites were below 18 ppm and considered safe. High ammonia concentrations were localised and occurred particularly on closed decks, as well as at the front of the vessel and near the engine block on open decks. Ammonia concentration on the open decks was correlated with cumulative wind during the voyage, air speed, dew point, wet bulb temperature and faecal pad depth, and on the closed decks with dew point, and wet and dry bulb temperature. Hydrogen sulphide (<1.8 ppm) and carbon dioxide (<1900 ppm) concentrations were low and did not pose a risk to animal or human welfare or health. The results suggest that high ammonia concentrations occur in those parts of the ship where there is insufficient ventilation and/or high temperatures and humidity.

Oxalate nephropathy in a laboratory colony of common marmoset monkeys (Callithrix jacchus) following the ingestion of Eucalyptus viminalis.

Seven common marmoset monkeys (Callithrix jacchus) from a laboratory colony of 17 died over a period of eight months. Death of six of these monkeys was attributed to kidney failure from an oxalate-induced nephropathy. The epidemiology of this outbreak suggested an exogenous source and there was strong evidence that the source was bark and leaves from an Eucalyptus viminalis tree. Branches of this tree were introduced one month before the first death. The branches were removed one month after deaths commenced, but deaths continued for another five months. Urinalysis of all surviving marmosets at 80 and 122 days after initial contact with the E viminalis branches suggested that these monkeys had renal impairment. In the cases described here, the eating behaviour of common marmosets apparently exposed the animals to toxic levels of oxalate in the bark and leaves of an E viminalis tree.

The physiological and behavioral responses of steers to gaseous ammonia in simulated long-distance transport by ship.

Ammonia can accumulate in high-density cattle accommodation during live export shipments and potentially threaten the health and welfare of the animals. The effects of 4 NH(3) concentrations, control (<6), 11, 23, and 34 mg/m(3), on the physiology and behavior of steers were recorded. The animals were held for 12 d under a microclimate and stocking density similar to shipboard conditions experienced on voyages from Australia to the Middle East during the northern hemispheric summer. In bronchoalveolar lavage samples, ammonia increased (P < 0.05) macrophage activity in proportion to NH(3) concentration and increased (P < 0.05) neutrophil percentage at 23 and 34 mg/m(3), indicating active pulmonary inflammation. Ammonia also increased (P < 0.05) lacrimation, nasal secretions, and coughing, particularly at 34 mg/m(3), indicating that the NH(3) was irritating the mucous membranes of the eyes, nasal cavity, and respiratory tract. Ammonia had no effect (P > 0.05) on hematological variables or BW. Twenty-eight days after exposure to NH(3), the pulmonary macrophage activity and neutrophil concentrations of the steers had returned to normal. It was concluded that ammonia concentrations of 23 and 34 mg/m(3) induced temporary inflammatory responses, which indicate an adverse effect on the welfare of steers.

Saliva sampling to assess cortisol levels in unrestrained common marmosets and the effect of behavioral stress.

We report a method for taking saliva samples from unrestrained, captive marmosets (Callithrix jacchus) to assess levels of free cortisol. Saliva samples can be obtained reliably, without any habituation, by encouraging the marmosets to lick and chew a cotton-wool bud coated in banana. Saliva is thus left on the bud. We also tested sweetened fruit-drink crystals and a number of other substances, but none of these attracted all of the marmosets, and even flavors that were effective once soon lost their attraction. The presence of banana in the samples collected was found to lower the measured concentration of cortisol; however, as shown in samples taken with and without the banana coating on the bud, it did so in a linear and consistent way, and did not vary significantly among subjects. Therefore, a simple conversion factor could be applied to correct for the presence of banana. A first experiment showed that the marmosets exhibited a rise in salivary cortisol levels in response to social isolation. A second experiment showed elevation of cortisol during a period when the marmosets were disturbed by increased human activity and noise levels in the building in which they were housed. Hence, this method of saliva sampling is a convenient, noninvasive means of assessing cortisol levels in marmosets.