Antimicrobial activity of bismuth subsalicylate on Clostridium difficile, Escherichia coli O157:H7, norovirus, and other common enteric pathogens.

Previous studies have shown bismuth subsalicylate (BSS) has antimicrobial properties, but few studies have addressed the mechanism of action. Furthermore, following BSS ingestion other bismuth salts form throughout the gastrointestinal tract including bismuth oxychloride (BiOCl) that also act upon enteric pathogens. To further understand the antimicrobial activity of bismuth in infectious diarrhea, the antimicrobial effect of BSS and BiOCl on Clostridium difficile, Salmonella, Shigella, Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli strains and norovirus (NoV) were measured. Bacterial enteric pathogens in pure culture or in human fecal material were exposed to 35mg/ml BSS or BiOCl with or without a vehicle suspension. BSS and BiOCl treated samples were quantified and visualized by transmission electron microscopy. To measure the effect on NoV, reduction of infectious murine NoV (MNV), a surrogate for human NoV, and Norwalk virus RNA levels were measured by viral plaque assay and RT-qPCR, respectively. BSS and BiOCl reduced bacterial growth by 3-9 logs in all strains with majority resulting in populations of <10 cfu/ml within 24 h. Similar results were found when fecal material was included. Microscopy images detected bismuth on bacterial membranes and within the bacterial organisms at 30 min post-treatment. At 8.8mg/ml BSS and BiOCl reduced infectivity of MNV significantly by 2.7 and 2.0 log after 24 h of exposure. In addition, both BSS and BiOCl slightly reduced the level of Norwalk replicon-bearing cells suggesting that bismuth may inhibit NoV in vivo. Collectively, our results confirm and build on existing data that BSS has antimicrobial properties against a wide-range of diarrhea-causing pathogens.

Vancomycin susceptibility trends and prevalence of heterogeneous vancomycin-intermediate Staphylococcus aureus in clinical methicillin-resistant S. aureus isolates.

Due to the rise in methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) infections and widespread use of vancomycin, MRSA isolates with reduced susceptibility to vancomycin are emerging (i.e., MIC creep). However, the prevalence of heterogeneous vancomycin-intermediate S. aureus (hVISA) is unknown due to the difficulty in detecting this phenotype. Recently, Etest glycopeptide resistance detection (GRD) strips have been developed to detect hVISA. This study assessed vancomycin susceptibility in MRSA isolates and determined the prevalence of hVISA by Etest GRD and population analysis profile-area under the curve ratio (PAP-AUC). The genetic backgrounds of 167 MRSA isolates collected from 2000 to 2008 were identified by pulsed-field gel electrophoresis. Vancomycin MICs were determined using Etest and two broth microdilution assays, MicroScan and Sensititre. Etest GRD was performed on all isolates, and those exhibiting a hVISA phenotype were further tested by PAP-AUC. The vancomycin MIC modes remained consistent at 1 µg/ml, as assessed by Sensititre and MicroScan. Etest reported a significant increase (mode MIC = 1.5 µg/ml) in the MIC between 2000 and 2008 (P < 0.01); however, this increase did not reflect a ≥ 2-fold change. In addition, the slight MIC increase did not increase linearly from 2000 to 2008, suggesting biological fluctuation, and is inconsistent with the concept of MIC creep. Etest GRD identified six hVISA isolates, two of which were confirmed to be hVISA by PAP-AUC. In conclusion, reduced vancomycin susceptibility was not detected in our hospital over a 9-year period using three different MIC methodologies, and the hVISA incidence was 1.2%, as determined by Etest GRD and PAP-AUC.

A flow cytometric assay to quantify in vivo bacterial uptake by alveolar macrophages.

Our laboratory has developed a flow cytometric assay to quantify alveolar macrophage (Mcapital EF, Cyrillic) phagocytosis of bacteria within a live animal. Mcapital EF, Cyrillics collected by bronchoalveolar lavage from rats infected transtracheally with Syto 9-labeled bacteria are fluorescently labeled for identification and analyzed by flow cytometry to quantify their bacterial uptake.