7beta-Hydroxycholesterol and 25-hydroxycholesterol-induced interleukin-8 secretion involves a calcium-dependent activation of c-fos via the ERK1/2 signaling pathway in THP-1 cells: oxysterols-induced IL-8 secretion is calcium-dependent.

Oxysterols found in oxidized low-density lipoproteins are probably involved in the appearance of atheroma; some are cytotoxic and some able to induce cytokine secretion. An oxysterol-induced interleukin-8 (IL-8) secretion in human monocytes/macrophages has been previously noticed, but the mechanisms remained unclear. In this paper, we investigated the signaling pathways leading to the induction of IL-8 secretion in monocytic THP-1 cells treated with 7beta-hydroxycholesterol, a cytototoxic oxysterol, or with 25-hydroxycholesterol, an oxysterol non-cytotoxic toward this cell line. The oxysterol-induced IL-8 secretion appears to be a calcium-dependent phenomenon as shown by the use of calcium channel blockers, which strongly decreased IL-8 secretion and IL-8 messenger RNA (mRNA) levels. Fluo-3 staining used in flow cytometry and video microscopy revealed an oxysterol-induced Ca(2+) influx, varying according to the oxysterol studied, leading to the activation of the MEK/ERK1/2 pathway as demonstrated by Western blot analysis. ERK activation led to an increase of c-fos mRNA and/or an activation of c-fos. Luciferase reporter gene assay using constructs of the human IL-8 gene promoter and Transam assay revealed the involvement of the AP-1 transcription factor in oxysterol-dependent IL-8 secretion. These results demonstrate that oxysterol-induced IL-8 secretion is a calcium-dependent phenomenon involving the MEK/ERK1/2 pathway leading to the activation of IL-8 gene via AP-1 (c-fos).

Multiplexed flow cytometric analyses of pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines in the culture media of oxysterol-treated human monocytic cells and in the sera of atherosclerotic patients.

BACKGROUND: Some oxysterols are identified in atheromatous plaques and in plasma of atherosclerotic patients. We asked whether they might modulate cytokine secretion on human monocytic cells. In healthy and atherosclerotic subjects, we also investigated the relationships between circulating levels of C-reactive protein (CRP), conventional markers of hyperlipidemia, some oxysterols (7beta-hydroxycholesterol, 7-ketocholesterol, and 25-hydroxycholesterol), and various cytokines. METHODS: Different flow cytometric bead-based assays were used to quantify some cytokines (IL-1beta, IL-2, IL-4, IL-5, IL-6, IL-7, IL-8, IL-10, IL-12, IL-13, IL-17, G-CSF, GM-CSF, IFN-gamma, MCP-1, MIP-1beta, or TNF-alpha) in the culture media of oxysterol-treated U937 and THP-1 cells, and in the sera of healthy and atherosclerotic subjects. CRP and markers of hyperlipidemia were determined with routine analytical methods. Oxysterols were quantified by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry. Flow cytometric and biochemical methods were used to measure IL-8 mRNA levels, intracellular IL-8 content, and protein phosphorylation in the mitogenic extracellular kinase/extracellular signal-regulated kinase1/2 (MEK/ERK1/2) signaling pathway. RESULTS: All oxysterols investigated are potent in vitro inducers of MCP-1, MIP-1beta, TNF-alpha, and/or IL-8 secretion, the latter involving the MEK/ERK1/2 cell signaling pathway. In healthy and atherosclerotic subjects, no relationships were found between cytokines (IL-8, IL-1beta, IL-6, IL-10, TNF-alpha, IL-12, and MCP-1), CRP, conventional markers of hyperlipidemia, and oxysterols. However, in patients with arterial disorders of the lower limbs, small but statistically significant differences in the circulating levels of CRP, TNF-alpha, and IL-10 were observed comparatively to healthy subjects and according to the atherosclerotic stage considered. CONCLUSIONS: Flow cytometric bead-based assays are well adapted to measure variations of cytokine secretion in the culture media of oxysterol-treated cells and in the sera of healthy and atherosclerotic subjects. They underline the in vitro proinflammatory properties of oxysterols and may permit to distinguish healthy and atherosclerotic subjects, as well as various atherosclerotic stages.

Activation of caspase-3-dependent and -independent pathways during 7-ketocholesterol- and 7beta-hydroxycholesterol-induced cell death: a morphological and biochemical study.

On treatment with 7-ketocholesterol (7-keto) or 7beta-hydroxycholesterol (7beta-OH), which are major oxysterols in atherosclerotic plaques, the simultaneous identification of oncotic and apoptotic cells suggests that these compounds activate different metabolic pathways leading to various modes of cell death. With U937, MCF-7 (caspase-3 deficient), MCF-7/c3 cells (stably transfected with caspase-3), we demonstrate that caspase-3 is essential for caspase-9, -7, -8 activation, for Bid degradation mediating mitochondrial cytochrome c release, for cleavage of poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase and inhibitor of the caspase-activated deoxyribonuclease, and, at least in part, for internucleosomal DNA fragmentation. The crucial role of caspase-3 was supported by the use of z-VAD-fmk and z-DEVD-fmk, which abolished apoptosis and the associated events. However, inactivation or lack of caspase-3 did not inhibit 7-keto- and 7beta-OH-induced cell death characterized by staining with propidium iodide, loss of mitochondrial potential. The mitochondrial release of apoptosis-inducing factor and endonuclease G was independent of the caspase-3 status, which conversely played major roles in the morphological aspects of dead cells. We conclude that caspase-3 is essential to trigger 7-keto- and 7beta-OH-induced apoptosis, that these oxysterols simultaneously activate caspase-3-dependent and/or -independent modes of cell death.

7-Ketocholesterol-induced apoptosis. Involvement of several pro-apoptotic but also anti-apoptotic calcium-dependent transduction pathways.

Oxysterols, and particularly 7-ketocholesterol, appear to be strongly involved in the physiopathology of atherosclerosis. These molecules are suspected to be cytotoxic to the cells of the vascular wall and monocytes/macrophages, particularly by inducing apoptosis. Previous studies have demonstrated that 7-ketocholesterol-induced apoptosis is triggered by a sustained increase of cytosolic-free Ca2+, which elicits the mitochondrial pathway of apoptosis by activation of the calcium-dependent phosphatase calcineurin, leading to dephosphorylation of the 'BH3 only' protein BAD. However, thorough study of the results suggests that other pathways are implicated in 7-ketocholesterol-induced cytotoxicity. In this study, we demonstrate the involvement of two other calcium-dependent pathways during 7-ketocholesterol-induced apoptosis. The activation of the MEK-->ERK pathway by the calcium-dependent tyrosine kinase PYK 2, a survival pathway which delays apoptosis as shown by the use of the MEK inhibitor U0126, and a pathway involving another pro-apoptotic BH3 only protein, Bim. Indeed, 7-ketocholesterol treatment of human monocytic THP-1 cells induces the release of Bim-LC8 from the microtubule-associated dynein motor complex, and its association with Bcl-2. Therefore, it appears that 7-ketocholesterol-induced apoptosis is a complex phenomenon resulting from calcium-dependent activation of several pro-apoptotic pathways and also one survival pathway.

NAD(P)H oxidase Nox-4 mediates 7-ketocholesterol-induced endoplasmic reticulum stress and apoptosis in human aortic smooth muscle cells.

The mechanisms involved in the cytotoxic action of oxysterols in the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis still remain poorly understood. Among the major oxysterols present in oxidized low-density lipoprotein, we show here that 7-ketocholesterol (7-Kchol) induces oxidative stress and/or apoptotic events in human aortic smooth muscle cells (SMCs). This specific effect of 7-Kchol is mediated by a robust upregulation (threefold from the basal level) of Nox-4, a reactive oxygen species (ROS)-generating NAD(P)H oxidase homologue. This effect was highlighted by silencing Nox-4 expression with a specific small interfering RNA, which significantly reduced the 7-Kchol-induced production of ROS and abolished apoptotic events. Furthermore, the 7-Kchol activating pathway included an early triggering of endoplasmic reticulum stress, as assessed by transient intracellular Ca(2+) oscillations, and the induction of the expression of the cell death effector CHOP and of GRP78/Bip chaperone via the activation of IRE-1, all hallmarks of the unfolded protein response (UPR). We also showed that 7-Kchol activated the IRE-1/Jun-NH(2)-terminal kinase (JNK)/AP-1 signaling pathway to promote Nox-4 expression. Silencing of IRE-1 and JNK inhibition downregulated Nox-4 expression and subsequently prevented the UPR-dependent cell death induced by 7-Kchol. These findings demonstrate that Nox-4 plays a key role in 7-Kchol-induced SMC death, which is consistent with the hypothesis that Nox-4/oxysterols are involved in the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis.

Analysis of the fluorescence of monodansylcadaverine-positive cytoplasmic structures during 7-ketocholesterol-induced cell death.

OBJECTIVE: To analyze multilamellar cytoplasmic structures by confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM) combined with factor analysis of biomedical image sequences (FAMIS). STUDY DESIGN: After treatment of U937 cells with 7-ketocholesterol (7-keto), cytoplasmic alterations were assessed with monodansylcadaverine (MDC). By ultraviolet excitation of a confocal laser scanning microscope (UV-CLSM), spectral sequences were performed to characterize 7-keto and MDC distribution inside cells. FAMIS was used to transform the image sequences in factor curves and images. RESULTS: By UV-CLSM, 7-keto fluorescence was detected together with MDC, which revealed morphologic cytoplasmic changes in cells. The factor images obtained from confocal image sequences emphasized the view of these results. These data are in agreement with biochemical characterizations of MDC-positive structures. CONCLUSION: The combined use of confocal microscopy and FAMIS allowed us to detect MDC-positive cytoplasmic structures in 7-keto-treated cells and to colocalize MDC and 7-keto distribution. This new method confirms the usefulness of MDC as a marker of oxysterol-induced cell death.

Impairment of the cytotoxic and oxidative activities of 7 beta-hydroxycholesterol and 7-ketocholesterol by esterification with oleate.

Atherosclerosis involves inflammatory processes, as well as cytotoxic and oxidative reactions. In atherosclerotic plaques, these phenomena are revealed by the presence of dead cells, oxidized lipids, and oxidative DNA damage, but the molecules triggering these events are still unknown. As 7 beta-hydroxycholesterol and 7-ketocholesterol, which are present at elevated concentrations in atherosclerotic lesions, are strongly cytotoxic and pro-oxidative, their effects were determined on cell death, superoxide anion and nitric oxide production, lipid peroxidation, and oxidative DNA damage. 7-Ketocholesterol- and 7 beta-hydroxycholesterol-induced cell death leads to a loss of mitochondrial potential, to increased permeability to propidium iodide, and to morphological nuclear changes (swelling, fragmentation, and/or condensation of nuclei). These effects are preceded by the formation of cytoplasmic monodansylcadaverine-positive structures and are associated with a rapid enhancement of cells overproducing superoxide anions, a decrease in cells producing nitric oxide, lipid peroxidation (formation of malondialdehyde and 4-hydroxynonenal adducts, low ratio of [unsaturated fatty acids]/[saturated fatty acids]) as well as oxidative DNA damage (8-oxoguanine formation). Noteworthy, none of the cytotoxic features previously observed with 7 beta-hydroxycholesterol and 7-ketocholesterol were noted with cholesterol, 7 beta-hydroxycholesteryl-3-oleate and 7-ketocholesteryl-3-oleate, with the exception of a slight increase in superoxide anion production with 7 beta-hydroxycholesteryl-3-oleate. This finding supports the theory that 7 beta-hydroxycholesterol and 7-ketocholesterol could induce cytotoxic and oxidative processes observed in atherosclerotic lesions and that esterification of these compounds may contribute to reducing atherosclerosis progression.

Analysis of oxidative processes and of myelin figures formation before and after the loss of mitochondrial transmembrane potential during 7beta-hydroxycholesterol and 7-ketocholesterol-induced apoptosis: comparison with various pro-apoptotic chemicals.

Among oxysterols oxidized at C7 (7alpha-, 7beta-hydroxycholesterol, and 7-ketocholesterol) 7beta-hydroxycholesterol and 7-ketocholesterol are potent inducers of cell death and probably play central roles in atherosclerosis. As suggested by our previous investigations, 7-ketocholesterol might be a causative agent of vascular damage by inducing apoptosis and enhancing superoxide anion (O2*-) production. To determine the precise relationships between cytotoxicity and oxidative stress, the ability of oxysterols oxidized at C7 to induce apoptosis, to stimulate O2*- production and to promote lipid peroxidation was compared with different pro-apoptotic chemicals: antitumoral drugs (VB, Ara-C, CHX, and VP-16) and STS. All compounds, except 7alpha-hydroxycholesterol, induced apoptosis characterized by the occurrence of cells with fragmented and/or condensed nuclei, loss of mitochondrial potential, caspase-3 activation, PARP degradation, and internucleosomal DNA fragmentation. The highest proportion of apoptotic cells was found with antitumoral drugs and STS, whereas the highest overproduction of O2*- detected before and after the loss of mitochondrial potential was obtained with 7beta-hydroxycholesterol and 7-ketocholesterol. Overproduction of O2*- was always correlated with enhanced lipid peroxidation. Vit E was only capable to significantly counteract apoptosis and oxidative stress induced by 7beta-hydroxycholesterol, 7-ketocholesterol, VB and STS. By electron and fluorescence microscopy, myelin figures evocating autophagic vacuoles were barely observed under treatment with 7beta-hydroxycholesterol and 7-ketocholesterol, and their formation occurring before the loss of mitochondrial potential was reduced by Vit E. In the presence of 7alpha-hydroxycholesterol, no enhancement of O2*- production, no lipid peroxidation, and no formation of myelin figures were observed. Collectively, our data demonstrate, that there can be a more or less important stimulation of oxidative stress during apoptosis. They also suggest that enhancement of O2*- production associated with lipid peroxidation during 7beta-hydroxycholesterol and 7-ketocholesterol-induced apoptosis could contribute to in vivo vascular injury, and that myelin figures could constitute suitable markers of oxysterol-induced cell death.