Cellular recognition and macropinocytosis-like internalization of nanoparticles targeted to integrin α2ß1.

Targeting nanoparticles to desired intracellular compartments is a major challenge. Integrin-type adhesion receptors are connected to different endocytosis routes in a receptor-specific manner. According to our previous observations, the internalization of an α2ß1-integrin-echovirus-1 complex takes place via a macropinocytosis-like mechanism, suggesting that the receptor could be used to target nanoparticles to this specific entry route. Here, silica-based nanoparticles, carrying monoclonal antibodies against the α2ß1 integrin as address labels, were synthesized. Studies with flow cytometry, atomic force microscopy and confocal microscopy showed the particles to attach to the cell surface via the α2ß1 integrin. Furthermore, quantitative analysis of nanoparticle trafficking inside the cell performed with the BioImageXD software indicated that the particles enter cells via a macropinocytosis-like process and end up in caveolin-1 positive structures. Thus, we suggest that different integrins can guide particles to distinct endocytosis routes and, subsequently, also to specific intracellular compartments. In addition, we show that with the BioImageXD software it is possible to conduct sensitive and complex analyses of the behavior of small fluorescent particles inside cells, using basic confocal microscopy images.

Characterization of selenium in UO2 spent nuclear fuel by micro X-ray absorption spectroscopy and its thermodynamic stability.

Direct disposal of spent nuclear fuel (SNF) in deep geological formations is the preferred option for the final storage of nuclear waste in many countries. In order to assess to which extent radionuclides could be released to the environment, it is of great importance to understand how they are chemically bound in the waste matrix. This is particularly important for long-lived radionuclides such as (79)Se, (129)I, (14)C or (36)Cl, which form poorly sorbing anionic species in water and therefore migrate without significant retardation through argillaceous repository materials and host rocks. We present here X-ray absorption spectroscopic data providing evidence that in the investigated SNF samples selenium is directly bound to U atoms as Se(-II) (selenide) ion, probably replacing oxygen in the cubic UO2 lattice. This result is corroborated by a simple thermodynamic analysis, showing that selenide is the stable form of Se under reactor operation conditions. Because selenide is almost insoluble in water, our data indirectly explain the unexpectedly low release of Se in short-term aqueous leaching experiments, compared to iodine or cesium. These results have a direct impact on safety analyses for potential nuclear waste repository sites, as they justify assuming a small fractional release of selenium in performance assessment calculations.