Transportation capacity for patients with highly infectious diseases in Europe: a survey in 16 nations.

Highly infectious diseases (HIDs) are defined as being transmissible from person to person, causing life-threatening illnesses and presenting a serious public health hazard. In most European Union member states specialized isolation facilities are responsible for the management of such cases. Ground ambulances are often affiliated with those facilities because rapid relocation of patients is most desirable. To date, no pooled data on the accessibility, technical specifications and operational procedures for such transport capacities are available. During 2009, the 'European Network for HIDs' conducted a cross-sectional analysis of hospitals responsible for HID patients in Europe including an assessment of (a) legal aspects; (b) technical and infrastructure aspects; and (c) operational procedures for ground ambulances used for HID transport. Overall, 48 isolation facilities in 16 European countries were evaluated and feedback rates ranged from 78% to 100% (n = 37 to n = 48 centres). Only 46.8% (22/47) of all centres have both national and local guidelines regulating HID patient transport. If recommended, specific equipment is found in 90% of centres (9/10), but standard ambulances in only 6/13 centres (46%). Exclusive entrances (32/45; 71%) and pathways (30/44; 68.2%) for patient admission, as well as protocols for disinfection of ambulances (34/47; 72.3%) and equipment (30/43; 69.8%) exist in most centres. In conclusion, the availability and technical specifications of ambulances broadly differ, reflecting different preparedness levels within the European Union. Hence, regulations for technical specifications and operational procedures should be harmonized to promote patient and healthcare worker safety.

Occupational transmission of an Orthopoxvirus infection during an outbreak in a colony of Macaca tonkeana in Lazio Region, Italy, 2015.

Orthopoxviruses spill over from animal reservoirs to accidental hosts, sometimes causing human infections. We describe the surveillance and infection control measures undertaken during an outbreak due to an Orthopoxvirus occurred in January 2015 in a colony of Macaca tonkeana in the province of Rieti, Latio, Italy, which caused a human asymptomatic infection. According to the epidemiological investigation, the human transmission occurred after an unprotected exposure. The contacts among wild, captive and domestic animals and humans, together with decreased immunity against Orthopoxviruses in the community, may put animal handlers at risk of infection, especially after the cessation of smallpox vaccination. To reduce these threats, standard precautions including respiratory hygiene and transmission-based precautions should be carefully applied also in veterinary medicine.

Longitudinal characterization of dysfunctional T cell-activation during human acute Ebola infection.

Data on immune responses during human Ebola virus disease (EVD) are scanty, due to limitations imposed by biosafety requirements and logistics. A sustained activation of T-cells was recently described but functional studies during the acute phase of human EVD are still missing. Aim of this work was to evaluate the kinetics and functionality of T-cell subsets, as well as the expression of activation, autophagy, apoptosis and exhaustion markers during the acute phase of EVD until recovery. Two EVD patients admitted to the Italian National Institute for Infectious Diseases, Lazzaro Spallanzani, were sampled sequentially from soon after symptom onset until recovery and analyzed by flow cytometry and ELISpot assay. An early and sustained decrease of CD4 T-cells was seen in both patients, with an inversion of the CD4/CD8 ratio that was reverted during the recovery period. In parallel with the CD4 T-cell depletion, a massive T-cell activation occurred and was associated with autophagic/apoptotic phenotype, enhanced expression of the exhaustion marker PD-1 and impaired IFN-gamma production. The immunological impairment was accompanied by EBV reactivation. The association of an early and sustained dysfunctional T-cell activation in parallel to an overall CD4 T-cell decline may represent a previously unknown critical point of Ebola virus (EBOV)-induced immune subversion. The recent observation of late occurrence of EBOV-associated neurological disease highlights the importance to monitor the immuno-competence recovery at discharge as a tool to evaluate the risk of late sequelae associated with resumption of EBOV replication. Further studies are required to define the molecular mechanisms of EVD-driven activation/exhaustion and depletion of T-cells.

Measles outbreak on a cruise ship in the western Mediterranean, February 2014, preliminary report.

A measles outbreak occurred in February 2014 on a ship cruising the western Mediterranean Sea. Overall 27 cases were reported: 21 crew members, four passengers.For two cases the status crew or passenger was unknown. Genotype B3 was identified. Because of different nationalities of cases and persons on board,the event qualified as a cross-border health threat. The Italian Ministry of Health coordinated rapid response.Alerts were posted through the Early Warning and Response System.

De novo malignancies following liver transplantation: results from a multicentric study in central and southern Italy, 1990-2008.

OBJECTIVE: The objective of this study was to quantify incidence rates (IR) and risks of de novo tumors (except nonmelanoma skin cancers) in patients who underwent orthotopic liver transplantation (OLT) in central and southern Italy. METHODS: Data were collected on 1675 patients (75.5% males) who underwent OLT in six Italian transplantation centers in central and southern Italy (1990-2008). The time at risk of cancer (person years [PY]) was computed from OLT to the date of cancer diagnosis, death, or last follow-up, whichever occurred first. The number of observed cancer cases were compared with the expected one using data from population-based cancer registries. We computed gender- and age-standardized incidence ratios (SIRs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs). RESULTS: During 10,104.3 PYs (median follow-up, 5.2 years), 98 patients (5.9% of the total) were diagnosed with a de novo malignancy (for a total of 100 diagnoses). Twenty-two of these cancers were post-transplantation lymphoproliferative disorders (PTLD; 18 non-Hodgkin lymphoma [NHL] and 2 Hodgkin's lymphoma [HL]), 6 were Kaposi's sarcoma (KS), and 72 were solid tumors (19 head and neck [H&N], 13 lung, 11 colon-rectum, 6 bladder, and 4 melanoma). The overall incidence was 9.9 cases/10(3) PYs, with a 1.4-fold significantly increased SIR (95% CI, l.2-1.7). Significantly increased SIRs were observed for KS (37.3), PTLD (3.9), larynx (5.7), melanoma (3.1), tongue (7.1), and H&N (4.5) cancers. CONCLUSIONS: These results confirmed that OLT patients are at greater risk for cancer, mainly malignancies either virus-associated or related to pre-existent factors (eg, alcohols). These observations point to the need to improve cancer surveillance after OLT. The on-going enrollment of patients in the present cohort study will help to elucidate the burden of cancer after OLT and better identify risk factors associated with its development.

Infections and antimicrobial resistance in long term care facilities: a national prevalence study.

BACKGROUND: A point prevalence survey (PPS) was conducted in Italy in 2010, as part of the first European PPS in Long Term Care Facilities (LTCFs), conducted within the HALT Project. METHODS: The PPS was aimed at estimating the prevalence of infections, antimicrobial resistance, and antibiotic use and to assess the status of infections control programs in this setting. RESULTS: Ninety two LTCFs, located in 11 different Italian regions, participated to the study: 9391 residents were enrolled, 9285 of whom were eligible according to the study criteria. The prevalence of residents with signs/symptoms of infection was 6.5% (606 residents); 438 residents were on antimicrobial treatment (4.7%) and 526 had signs/symptoms (5.7%) but in 324 residents only (3.5/100 residents) the infection satisfied the modified McGeer criteria and was considered confirmed. The most frequent infection site was the respiratory tract (1.27/100 residents). Mostly of the antibiotics were prescribed for respiratory tract infections (42.8% of the antibiotics) and for urinary tract infections (26.6%). The most frequently prescribed classes were quinolones, followed by penicillin plus beta-lactamase inhibitor and 3rd generation cephalosporins. Few infection had a microbiological confirmation, but among the 143 isolated microorganisms 24% were multidrug resistant. CONCLUSIONS: The burden of infections and antimicrobial resistance in LTCFs is significant and infection control and surveillance program are urgently needed.

Infection control practices in facilities for highly infectious diseases across Europe.

BACKGROUND: The management of patients with highly infectious diseases (HIDs) is a challenge for healthcare provision requiring a high level of care without compromising the safety of other patients and healthcare workers. AIM: To study the infection control practice in isolation facilities participating in the European Network for Highly Infectious Diseases (EuroNHID) project. METHODS: A survey was conducted during 2009 of 48 isolation facilities caring for patients with HIDs in 16 European countries. Checklists and standard evaluation forms were used to collect and interpret data on hand hygiene, routine hygiene and disinfection, and waste management. FINDINGS: Forty percent of HIDs had no non-hand-operated sinks or alcohol-based antiseptic distributors, while 27% did not have procedures for routine hygiene, final disinfection, or safe discarding of non-disposable objects or equipment. There was considerable variation in the management of waste and in the training of housekeeping personnel. EuroNHID has developed recommendations for hand hygiene, disinfection, routine hygiene, and waste management. CONCLUSIONS: Most aspects of hand hygiene, routine hygiene and disinfection, and waste management were considered at least partially adequate in the majority of European isolation facilities dedicated for the care of patients with HIDs. But considerable variability was observed, with management of waste and training of housekeeping personnel being generally less satisfactory.

[Management of biohazard in health care settings]. / Gestione del rischio biologico in ospedale.

The management of biohazard in health care settings entails multidisciplinarity, valuing the interactions among stakeholders (General Manager, Medical Director, health care workers, prevention and protection units, infection control panels, occupational physicians), with the aim of protecting health and safety of workers, third parties and the health care service. The management issue was tackled within SIMLII guidelines on biohazards, as well as by the SIMLII Section on Preventive Medicine for Health Care Workers, followed by editorial initiatives. This contribution focuses on afield example on the management of data stemming from accidents involving biohazards, highlighting the need of information technology enabling management of enormous amount of health data. This work underlines the primacy of individual risk assessment and management, while combining information on working techniques and procedures with modern health surveillance, on the basis of accredited literature and good medical, organizational and technical practices.

[Strategies for prevention and control of healthcare related infections by Acinetobacter baumannii]. / Strategie di prevenzione e controllo delle infezioni da Acinetobacter baumannii correlate all'assistenza sanitaria.

The frequent development of acquired antibiotics resistance in bacteria represents a challenge for Public Health in terms of healthcare associated infections control. Apart from the appropriate use of drugs, in particular the choice of proper antimicrobial therapy, increasing interest is, therefore, given to the non-pharmacological prevention of these infections. Acinetobacter (A.) baumannii is a micoorganism that commonly causes infections for patients hospitalized in critical hospital wards (intensive care units, burn centers, surgery, neonatology, etc) potentially severe and difficult to treat, because A. baumannii is resistant to many or sometimes all, available antibiotics (PDR - pan drug resistant). The aim of the present paper was to review the available measures for preventing and controlling the contamination and the spread of these types of bacterial infections in health care scenarios, with particular attention to two methods that stand out for efficiency and safety: hand hygiene and environmental disinfection.

[NDM-1: the superbug?]. / NDM-1: il superbug?

A novel type of carbapenemase, New Delhi metallo beta-lactamase 1 (NDM 1), was first identified in 2008 in two Enterobacteriacea isolates, both recovered from a Swedish patient transferred from India. The emergence of NDM 1 is now reported from all continents, often in patients with a history of travel or hospitalization in the Indian subcontinent. The NDM 1 producing Gram-negative bacteria are mainly Enterobacteriaceae, which can cause colonization or fatal infections, with worrying antimicrobial susceptibility profiles: some isolates have developed resistance to practically all available antibiotics. Is the NDM-1 the super-bug? Are we in the post-antibiotic era? This review is a summary of currently available knowledge of NDM-1 that draws attention to future antimicrobial resistance scenarios.

[Focus on risk assessment in health environments: results and perspectives of a multicenter working group]. / Focus sulla valutazione del rischio negli ambienti sanitari: risultati e prospettive di un gruppo di lavoro multicentrico.

The hospital risk assessment (VdR) is certainly a relevant issue concerning the activities of prevention for the health of healthcare workers in relation to biological risk. The aim of this paper is to provide an up-date of the issue, based on the suggestions of recent literature about the rules ratified by the new legislative decree and data supplied by the Group of 10 Hospitals participated in this multicenter study. From the analysis of data on healthcare settings (HCS) participating in the project the following considerations can be formulated: i) All HCS considered VdR from biological agents. The method recommended in the Guidelines SIMLII 2005 is the most followed ii) To grading the risk, the use of invasive procedures for carrying out the analysis results is a necessary element iii) the operators classified as exposed to biological risk, and therefore subject to health surveillance, represent almost all of workforce in 7 out of 10 HCS. The subgroup believes that VdR must be conducted in close collaboration with the occupational physician and should represent a worthwhile investment with spin-off character on prevention, decision making, empowering. The presence of environmental requirements and organizational procedures should be considered, so that HCS is enabled for an effective risk management, without which risk assessments cannot be performed. The method of VdR mentioned in the guidelines MLIS 2005, besides being the most widely used by the company participating in the study, still has practical reasons and opportunities to justify its use. The HCS group felt the need to propose an implementation of the definition of invasive procedures and EPP, together with individual assessment. Flexibility was suggested in identifying different levels of risk with the involvement of occupational physicians, especially in the presence of EPP, also in order to plan content and frequency of health surveillance.

[Focus on health surveillance of health workers exposed to blood-transmissible biological agents: results and perspectives of a multicenter working group]. / Focus sulla sorveglianza sanitaria dei lavoratori della sanità esposti ad agenti biologici trasmissibili per via ematogena: risultati e prospettive di un gruppo di lavoro multicentrico.

The biological risk from exposure to bloodborne pathogens in health care environments represents a frequent and widespread risk, involving a large number of exposed workers. On the basis of the available scientific innovations, the recent legislation regarding health and safety of workers and the experiences of SIMLII guidelines on health surveillance (HS) workers exposed to biological risk, a multicenter study was carried out, involving nine relevant hospitals and about 32 000 healthcare workers (HCW). A review of the literature was performed, with particular reference to the last 10 years. For each hospital, protocols of HS have been examined according to tasks and biological risk from bloodborne viruses (HBV, HDV, HCV, HIV) as well as management of HCW infected with this pathogens. Differences of risk management in the hospitals, in relationship also with recommendations of the literature have been evaluated. The literature supplies important indications for HS management of HCW exposed to bloodborne pathogens, with relevant information also for patient safety. Preventive examinations are in line with the recommendations of literature and similar across the hospitals for HCV and HIV, while they are different for HBV. Periodic surveillance was different for the frequency, among the hospitals and also as compared to national SIMLII guidelines. As for management, no differentiation among the hospitals was detected as referred to different risk of exposure, while differences were observed around definitions of restrictions. Finally, good medical practices to support occupational physicians in the prevention and management of HCWs' exposed to biological risks are suggested.

[Tuberculosis. Focus on risk assessment and health surveillance in health workers: results and perspectives of a multicenter working group]. / La tubercolosi. Focus sulla valutazione del rischio e la sorveglianza sanitaria dei lavoratori della sanità: risultati e prospettive di un gruppo di lavoro multicentrico.

INTRODUCTION: Tuberculosis (TB) is still a threat for healthcare workers (HCW), due to the non decreasing incidence, the spread of drug-resistance, the introduction of new tests for the screening, the relevant costs of surveillance of exposed subjects. These issues implicate a revision of activities to prevent TB in health-care settings. METHODS: A multidisciplinary working group, led by occupational physicians, examined the activities to prevent TB performed in 9 Italian hospitals and reviewed the literature, with the aim to formulate evidence-based procedures. RESULTS: In the considered hospitals, 23.000 HCW are classified as exposed to TB, out of 32.000 HCW exposed to biological risks; yearly, about 6000 subjects are screened for preventive, periodical or post-exposure surveillance and 110-130 chemoprophylaxis are prescribed. A high proportion of HCW (54-75%) refused or interrupt to assume the drugs. In the period 2004-2008, 14 occupational TB were diagnosed (9/100.000 HCW exposed to biological risks). DISCUSSION: Critical issues are the availability of a specific, written TB control plan, including risk assessment, protocols for identifying, evaluating, managing infectious TB patients, health surveillance, education programs, specifically addressed to increase Standard Precaution adoption and compliance to the screening and to adequate risk perception. Risk assessment identify HCW to be included in TB testing (characterized by low positive predictive value), unrecognized TB and environmental control needed; TB risk classification should include no more than 3 or 4 classes and performed by assessing the issues suggested in the Italian guideline. Tubercolin skin test should be used for HCW screening, adding in vitro test in specific circumstances (for example, skin test positivity in BCG vaccinated HCW); the frequency of the screening should not exceed 2 years. Periodical revision of preventive activities should follow up to date scientific literature and need appropriate data computing.

[Exanthemic diseases (measles, chickenpox, rubella and parotitis). Focus on screening and health surveillance of health workers: results and perspectives of a multicenter working group]. / Le malattie esantematiche (Morbillo, Varicella, Rosolia e Parotite). Focus su screening e sorveglianza sanitaria dei lavoratori della sanità: risultati e prospettive di un gruppo di lavoro multicentrico.

BACKGROUND: Nosocomial transmission of varicella-zoster virus, certain paramixovirus and rubivirus might pose a risk of morbidity for varicella (V), rubella (R), mumps (Mu) and measles (Me) in health care workers (HCW), patients and coworkers. International literature and European legislation recommend preventive interventions to minimize the risk. METHODS: A literature review and a seroprevalence study were carried out in 9 hospitals located in north and central Italy, in order to evaluate risk assessment, health surveillance and fitness for work of HCW exposed to V, R, Mu and Me. Antibodies (Ab) against V, R, Mu and Me were determined. For a subgroup of 4 hospitals; sociodemographic, occupational data and sera were collected and analyzed. RESULTS: About 36000 tests on about 9000 HCW were analyzed. Differences in seroprevalence ratios (V 85.7-95.1%, R 47-96.8%, Me 71.4-97.8%, Mu 52.5-87.6%) were detected. In a subgroup, a relevant number of non immune HCW was also found among women infertile age and areas at higher risk. Statistically significant differences were detected only for selected variables and viruses. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS: Data of multicenter study confirm literature evidences and allow to define good medical practices for manage and minimize the risk of nosocomial transmission of V, R, Me and Mu. Recommendation are issued about serologic screening on HCW exposed to all 4 viruses thorough the modern analytical techniques, in order to assess risk on individual a group basis and to select priorities for intervention. Vaccination should be prescribed for those HCW non immune, selecting areas and HCW according to priorities.

[Focus on coverage and promotion of anti influenza vaccine in health workers: results and perspectives of a multicenter working group]. / Focus so copertura e promozione della vaccinazione antinfluenzale nei lavoratori della sanità: risultati e prospettive di un gruppo di lavoro multicentrico.

INTRODUCTION: The influenza illness is a concern for health care workers (HCW) due to the potential nosocomial transmission and sickness absenteeism. Immunization and Isolation Precautions might be effective preventive measures. AIMS: To formulate recommendations on vaccination in healthcare settings. METHODS: A multidisciplinary working group, led by occupational physicians (OP), examined the information on seasonal influenza immunisation campaign in 9 Italian hospitals in the period 2005-2009 and reviewed scientific evidence. RESULTS: Many health organizations recommend vaccination of HCW. The literature shows that seasonal influenza vaccination of healthy adult have a modest effect in reducing work day lost; there is no evidence that it affects transmission or it prevents the disease in elderly residents. These observations might be conditioned by methodological limitations. Further studies are required to avoid the risk of bias and in pediatric settings. The rate of flu vaccination among HCW is widely variable and it depends on individual risk perception and information about efficacy and side effects. In the considered hospitals, in the five-years period the vaccination rate ranged between 0 and 29%: the median value was 16-17% in 2005, 2008 and 2009 (only against H1N1 influence), 11% and 13% in 2007 and 2006 respectively. OP participation in the vaccination campaign seems to increase the immunization rate. DISCUSSION: Seasonal influenza immunization of HCW might be effective. We recommend to formalize written procedures in health care settings, to perform data computing and to periodically revise immunization activities and promotion and scientific literature, with the aim to appropriately address resources.

Estimating diagnostic accuracy of tests for latent tuberculosis infection without a gold standard among healthcare workers.

The evaluation of diagnostic accuracy of new in vitro diagnostic assays for tuberculosis infection has been hampered by the lack of a standard reference test. The aim of this study was to compare sensitivity and specificity of interferon gamma assays for latent tuberculosis infection by assessing the association of test results with tuberculosis occupational exposure and by using latent class analysis. We analysed data from 115 healthcare workers on whom tuberculin skin test (TST) and the following in vitro tests were performed: in-house ELISPOT for RD1 proteins, T.SPOT-TB and Quantiferon-TB Gold. Results of all tests were associated with increased occupational risk of exposure to Mycobacterium tuberculosis, but only TST was associated with Bacillus Calmette-Guerin (BCG) vaccination. Sensitivity/specificity (95% confidence intervals) estimated by a latent class model were: 99.9%/64.2% (53.0-74.1) for TST, 95.3% (61.8-99.6)/87.5% (78.0-93.2) for in-house ELISPOT, 96.7% (69.3-99.7)/85.6%(75.3-92.0) for T.SPOT-TB, and 76.3% (55.9-89.1)/93.6% (85.4-97.3) for Quantiferon. The estimated specificity of in vitro assays was higher than that of TST also among individuals who were not BCG-vaccinated. In conclusion, when used in healthcare workers, in vitro assays may provide a significant increase of specificity for tuberculosis infection compared to TST, even among non vaccinated individuals, at the cost of some sensitivity.

[Tuberculosis risk assessment in Italian healthcare centres]. / La valutazione del rischio tubercolosi nelle strutture sanitarie.

BACKGROUND: Tuberculosis transmission is a significant hazard in healthcare settings. METHODS: Risk factors suggested by CDC guidelines in 1994, which were adopted by the Italian Ministry of Health, were assessed in 29 centres via questionnaires in 2005. RESULTS: Few centers were equipped with negative pressure, respiratory isolation rooms. Half of the centres had high or ongoing risk. CONCLUSIONS: The hazard is underestimated mostly because of a high number of initially undiagnosed TB patients.

Isolation rooms for highly infectious diseases: an inventory of capabilities in European countries.

Isolation of patients with highly infectious diseases (HIDs) in hospital rooms with adequate technical facilities is essential to reduce the risk of spreading disease. The European Network for Infectious Diseases (EUNID), a project co-funded by European Commission and involving 16 European Union member states, performed an inventory of high level isolation rooms (HIRs, hospital rooms with negative pressure and anteroom). In participating countries, HIRs are available in at least 211 hospitals, with at least 1789 hospital beds. The adequacy of this number is not known and will depend on prevailing circumstances. Sporadic HID cases can be managed in the available HIRs. HIRs could also have a role in the initial phases of an influenza pandemic. However, large outbreaks due to natural or to bioterrorist events will need management strategies involving healthcare facilities other than HIRs.