[History of the development of domestic psychiatry: the period 1940-1980]. / Istoriya razvitiya otechestvennoi psikhiatrii: period 1940­1980 gg.

The article briefly presents an analysis of the development of domestic psychiatry (with an emphasis on research in the field of psychopathology and nosology) from the post-war period (the Great Patriotic War) to the era of "perestroika". With the founding of the Institute of Psychiatry of the USSR Academy of Medical Sciences under the leadership of V.A. Gilyarovsky, the study of endogenous diseases was based on a multidisciplinary approach, in which the clinical-psychopathological research method was combined with clinical/biological ones. The most important role of the subsequent school of A.V. Snezhnevsky in describing the syndromes and forms of the course of schizophrenia (G.A. Rotshtein, R.A. Nadzharov, A.B. Smulevich, A.K. Anufriev), its age aspects (E.Ya. Sternberg; M.S. Vrono, G.P. Panteleeva, M.Ya. Tsutsulkovskaya; V.M. Bashina) is reflected. The contribution to psychopathology of other leading Russian psychiatrists, who worked mainly in Moscow and Leningrad research institutions of that period, was noted: students of P.B. Gannushkin - O.V. Kerbikov, V.M. Morozov, D.S. Ozeretskovsky, S.G. Zhislin, as well as G.K. Ushakov, A.E. Lichko, M.M. Kabanov, G.V. Morozov, M.V. Korkina, A.A. Portnov, I.N. Pyatnitskaya and others. The priority of A.V. Snezhnevsky and G.K. Avrutsky with colleagues for the introduction of neuroleptics and other new psychotropic drugs in the treatment of mental illnesses is emphasized. The review ends with the activities of M.E. Vartanyan who headed the country's leading scientific institution in the difficult «perestroika¼ era and developed the biological approach to mental illness further with the creation of international research programs.

[Statics and dynamics of psychopathies in the concept of Ε. Κraepelin]. / Statika i dinamika psikhopatii v kontseptsii E. Krepelina.

The concept of psychopathic personalities presented in the 8-th last lifetime edition of E. Kraepelin's textbook is analyzed. The special interest was guided by the fact that many types of psychopathic personalities were described by E. Kraepelin in other rubrics: «primary morbid states¼, manic-depressive illness, paranoia, hysteria, Dementia praecox. E. Kraepelin gave also a prognosis of further development of psychopathic personality and by this way analyzed its dynamics. So, for example, he found that the prognosis of unstable personalities is less favorable compared to those with excitable type. E. Kraepelin subdivided the types of «liars and swindlers¼, "antisocial" and also hysterics according to the prognosis in stationary and regredient courses. The regredient course of psychopathy E. Kraepelin explained by behindhand maturing of psychopathic traits caused by partial infantilism. Constitutionally depressed, constitutionally excited, irritable and cyclothymic psychopathic types distinguished by their disposition to phasic manifesting affective disorders (MDP), but were capable also to remain stationary during the lifetime as the corresponding three types of psychopathic personalities delineated by E. Kraepelin in schizophrenia. The type of «nervous¼ (from the rubric of «primary morbid states¼) was the ground for obsessive-compulsive neurosis, sexual perversions and also was able to combine with more or less prominent traits of other psychopathic types. According to clinical features, the «nervous¼ type was the expression of the conceptually preceding notion of general «degenerative constitution¼. It is important to note that E. Kraepelin considered the possibilities of combinations of different psychopathic types (connections of psychopathic traits) but never considered the possibility of development from one innate psychopathic type in the other.

[Doctrine of dynamics of psychopathies: phases and psychogenic reactions (from K. Jaspers to P.B. Gannushkin)]. / Uchenie o dinamike psikhopatii: fazy i psikhogennye reaktsii (ot K. Jaspers k P.B. Gannushkinu).

The influence of description of the forms of course of mental pathology and systematization of abnormal mental reactions in General Psychopathology of K. Jaspers(1913) on the subsequent development of the concepts of psychopathies dynamics and psychopathic reactions in the works of E. Kretschmer (1918), E. Bleuler (1920), K. Schneider (1927) and especially P.B. Gannushkin (1933) is analyzed. In the notion of personality development K. Jaspers included three components: constitutional growth, forming due to the interactions with the environment (including habits and exercises), mental reactions. The P.B. Gannushkin's description of the dynamics of psychopathies reflects the three-component structure of personality development suggested by K. Jaspers. The distinguished by K. Jaspers three principles of differentiation of mental reactions: according to occasion (including as the reactions to single acute trauma as to repeating chronic mental traumas), according to psychopathological structure, and according to the ground (psychopathic and schizophrenic), found its development in P.B. Gannushkin's clinical descriptions of situational and constitutional reactions and of boundaries between the pathopsychological structure of reactions and different constitutional ground.

[Doctrine of psychopathies: the concept of M.O. Gurevich and M.Ja. Serejskij]. / K evolyutsii kontseptsii «psikhopatii¼ v otechestvennoi psikhiatrii: vzglyady M.O. Gurevicha i M.Ya. Sereiskogo.

Understanding of psychopathies in the concept of Russian psychiatrists M.O. Gurevich and M.Ja. Serejskij is analyzed. These authors considered that the principal difference exists between neuroses and psychopathies (neurosis is a reversible disorder capable for development in normal personality). They used two systematics of psychopathies: the first one was focused on the rubric «Psychopathic personalities¼ of the last lifetime edition of E. Kraepelin's Textbook of Psychiatry, herewith the authors negated the existence of the «antisocial¼ psychopathy type, instead reckoning to psychopathies the perversions of drives. The second systematics of psychopathies represented the development of E. Kretschmer's constitutional typology, however, M.O. Gurevich, M.Ja. Serejskij, besides the psychopathies of schizoid and cycloid circles, also singled out epileptoid, hysteroid psychopathies, psychasthenia and sexual perversions. The authors believed that the polarity and contrast of character's properties are inherent to four types of constitutional psychopathies, including schizoid, cycloid, epileptoid and hysteroid. The concept of M.O. Gurevich and M.Ja. Serejskij is compared with preceding concepts of psychopathies, including P.B. Gannushkin and their contemporary V.A. Gilyarovsky.

[Evolution of the concept of psychopathy in Russian psychiatry from V.H. Kandinskiy to S.A. Sukhanov]. / Evolyutsiya kontseptsii «psikhopatii¼ v otechestvennoi psikhiatrii ot V.Kh. Kandinskogo do S.A. Sukhanova.

The development of the concept of clinical signs of «general¼ predisposition to mental diseases that is defined by the notion of psychopathy is analyzed. The foundations of this concept in Russian psychiatry were laid by V.H. Kandinskiy and V.M. Behterev, hereinafter they were developed by S.S. Korsakov, P.I. Kovalevskiy and V.P. Serbskiy. S.A. Sukhanov and P.B. Gannushkin focused on the separate types of abnormal character that were connected with different neurosis and «degenerative¼ psychosis. According to S.A. Sukhanov's concept, the anxious-doubting (psychasthenic) character with the amplification of its symptoms transits to psychasthenia, the patological reasoning character (close to paranoic) to delusional disorders (or paranoic psychosis), hysterical character to hysterical neurosis, «morally defective¼ character to «moral madness¼. S.A. Sukhanov suggested the systematics of abnormal characters not by one prominent trait but by the presence of several signs from more broad set of traits that generally are typical for the given abnormal character.

[The development of temperaments typology in E. Krestchmer's concept]. / Razvitie tipologii «temperamentov¼ v kontseptsii E. Kretschmer.

The development of E. Kretschmer's concept of temperaments throughout fifty years is analyzed. The small changes in terminology that occurred in the fourth edition of «Body type and character¼ took place due to the introducing E. Bleuler's termin «synton¼ for the intermediate affective states of healthy cyclothymic temperaments and E. Kretschmer's termin "leptosom" for the body type that before was delineated as "asthenic". However, the transition from the systematics with 3 types of physique and corresponding 2 types of mental constitutions to the systematics, including separate temperament of athletic physique («viscous¼), took place much later. This was preceded by the delineation of epileptic mental constitution by E. Bleuler (1916) and the description of epileptoid constitution. The clinical descriptions of cycloid and schizoid temperaments as the descriptions of corresponding «healthy¼ constitutional types of cyclothyms and schizothyms in the monograph «Body type and character¼ has not changed till the last lifetime edition of the author.

[Mental constitution and mental disease: from Th. Tilings's to E. Kretschmer's concepts]. / Psikhicheskaia konstitutsiia i psikhicheskaia bolezn': ot kontseptsii Tilinga k kontseptsii Krechmera.

The dynamics of the concept of the continual development of mental disease from the constitution that was the most clearly formulated by a Russian psychiatrist Th. Tiling in the discussion with the German psychiatrist C. Neisser is presented. The concept of Th. Tiling influenced E. Bleuler's approach to the description of basic and accessory symptoms of schizophrenia and also on E. Kretschmer's concept of constitution and mental disease. Main characteristics of cycloid and schizoid personality of E. Kretschmer's concept are presented. The author notes the very broad E. Kretschmer's understanding of 'psychesthetic proportion', which state explains not only the diversity of schizoid types but also many psychotic psychopathological phenomena. In addition to the altered affectivity, autism was the second basic symptom of schizophrenia, which mild manifestations form the basis for E. Kretschmer systematics of schizoid types. E. Kretschmer's understanding of autism was broader than Bleuler's and was presented by E. Kretschmer as a symptom derived from special schizoid affectivity (psychesthetic proportion). The critics of E. Kretschmer's concept by some contemporary German psychiatrists is also considered.

[Doctrine of psychopathies: K. Conrad's concept of constitutional types]. / Uchenie o psikhopatiiakh: kontseptsiia konstitutsional'nykh tipov K. Konrada.

The author analyzes K. Conrad's concept of constitutional types based on the suggested differences in ontogenetic development of picnic and leptosomic physique, athletics and asthenics and also dysplastics. K. Conrad's typology is compared with the typology of Italian school of clinical anthropometry and E. Kretschmer's concept of constitutions. K. Conrad's criteria for the division of primary and secondary constitutions are delineated, one of the basic criteria are set by the differences in the physique proportions and tissue development. The different physiological characteristics of picnic and leptosomic constitutions as well as their cardinal mental differences are described. The special description of mental characteristics of the asthenic-hypoplastic type and some dysplastic constitutions is presented. Manic-depressive psychosis is considered by K. Conrad as a diathesis because due to the conservative constitutional development the mental disease in picnics is capable for compensation, schizophrenia is related to the system diseases, the normal leptosomic constitution is a 'milieu' which contributes to the manifestation of schizophrenia due to the peculiarities of ontogenetic constitutional development designated by K. Conrad as propulsive. As a result of this, the disease leads to the defect.

[The notion of psychopathic personalities in Kurt Schneider's concept]. / Poniatie psikhopaticheskikh lichnostei v kontseptsii Kurta Shnaidera.

The understanding of psychopathic personalities in early works of Kurt Schneider making start from the traditional doctrine of temperament but straying from the degeneration theory and constitutional concepts of E. Kretschmer is analyzed. Under the notion of psychopathic personality K. Schneider means properly the variation of the character that according to his famous definition can cause by its 'deviations from the average' suffering for the society and can also suffers itself due to those deviations. The importance that K. Schneider attached to the differentiation of all personality anomalies from schizophrenic process is emphasized. The basic characteristics of 10 special types of psychopathic personalities according to K. Schneider's systematics are also analyzed. K. Schneider pursued the identification of one prominent psychological trait in the building of his systematics and definition of special psychopathic types. He strived to avoid sociological labels that had been used by his predecessors ('liars and cheaters', 'enemies of society' 'inborn prostitute' and so on). The great influence of E. Kretschmer on K. Schneider's characteristics of 'affective' and 'unsure of himself' psychopaths is noted although K. Schneider did not accepted the constitutional systems of E. Kretschmer and did not highlight 'schizoid' psychopathy. The growth of psychopathic personality groups compared with the last lifetime systematics of E. Kraepelin (from eight to ten) appears by K. Schneider only formal because E. Kraepelin placed some clinically detailed descriptions of personality disorders beyond the main heading.

[Doctrine of psychopathies: the Kretschmer's constitutional-morphologic concept]. / Uchenie o tipologii psikhopatii: konstitutsional'no-morfologicheskaia kontseptsiia É. Kretchmera.

The morphological landmarks suggested by E. Kretschmer for delineation of three basic types of somatic constitutions: picnic, athletic and leptosome are analyzed, the critics of declared affinity of bodily structure to cycloid or schizoid type of psyche is also considered. The influence of the ideas of Italian anthropometric school on the Kretschmer's morphologic concept is marked. E. Kretschmer's negation of 'degeneration' theory that was the ground for the development of psychopathy doctrine is underlined. Due to that negation physical stigmata (dysplastic bodily structure), sexual anomalies and character disharmonies having been described according to 'degeneration' concept as general signs of predisposition to mental disorders were included according to the Kretschmer's concept into 'schizoid' group.

[To the historical origins of the notion of 'schizoid psychopathy' in the concept of Kurt Binswanger]. / K istorii vozniknoveniia termina 'shizoidnaia psikhopatiia' v kontseptsii K. Binsvangera.

The author analyzes concepts of E. Bleuler, E. Kraepelin and P.B. Gannushkin on premorbid personality of schizophrenic patients preceded the term 'schizoid psychopathy' and describes characteristics of psychiatric status of 'schizoid alcoholics' in the concept of K. Binswanger which provided the basis for coining the term 'schizoid psychopathy'.

[To the origins of the 'unitary psychosis' doctrine: from Aretaeus to V. Chiarugi]. / K istokam ucheniia o 'edinom psikhoze': ot Areteia do V. K'iarudzhi.

The concepts of the authors of 'unitary psychosis' doctrine preceeding the famous concepts of the XIX-th century authors J. Guislain, A. Zeller and W. Griesinger are analyzed. The beginnings of unitary psychosis doctrine are presented in the works of the antiquity period physician Aretaeus the Cappadician (II century), the founder of neurology, the English physician Thomas Willis (XVII century), the author of the term 'neurosis', the Scottish physician W. Cullen and the Florentine psychiatrist V. Chiarugi (XVIII century). The notions of partial and general insanity and some counter-arguments of the opponents of unitary psychosis concept are also discussed.

[Accessory symptoms of schizophrenia: E. Bleuler's concept]. / Aktsessornye simptomy shizofrenii: kontseptsiia E. Bleuler.

The analysis of E. Bleuler's concept of accessory symptoms of schizophrenia: delusions, hallucinations, depersonalization disorders, splitting of the ego, memory disorders, catatonic symptoms and acute syndromes (manic and melancholic states, acute paranoia, twilight states, clouding of consciousness, confusion, fugues and dipsomania) is presented. The relationship of accessory symptoms with primary and secondary schizophrenic symptoms according to the second concept of E. Bleuler is highlighted. The mechanisms of the origin of psychopathological accessory symptoms and E. Bleuler's understanding of many schizophrenic psychopathological symptoms as a quantitative increasing of a normal psychic phenomenon are discussed.

['Primary', 'basic' and 'secondary' symptoms of schizophrenia in the concept of E. Bleuler]. / 'Pervichnye', 'osnovnye' i 'vtorichnye' simptomy shizofrenii v kontseptsii E. Bleilera.

Two first works of swiss psychiatrist E. Bleuler that revise the symptomatology of Kraepelinian dementia praecox leaning on some findings of the psychoanalysis of S. Freud, C. Jung, F. Riklin, K. Abraham and on the P. Janet's concept of psychasthenia are analyzed. The early concept of primary (testifying the direct organic lesion) and secondary (of psychogenic origin) symptoms of schizophrenia formulated by E. Bleuler is compared with his following concept of 'basic' and 'accessory' symptoms of schizophrenia. The concept of primary and secondary symptoms of schizophrenia was created firstly as a ground for the prognosis of the disease, and the concept of basic and accessory symptoms for the confident diagnosis of the disease. E. Bleuler's concept accentuated the diagnosis of schizophrenia on the psychopathological and pathopsychological state of the patient, in contrast to E. Kraepelin's concept of dementia praecox based on the course and outcome, made possible the expansion of schizophrenia boundaries at the expense of different psychotic and nonpsychotic disorders that other authors attributed to the forms of 'degenerative madness', neuroses and psychopathies.

[K. Birnbaum's concept of psychopathic personalities]. / Psikhopaticheskie lichnosti v kontseptsii K. Birnbauma.

K. Birnbaum's concept of psychopathic personalities is analyzed. K. Birnbaum was one of the first psychiatrists who had suggested the differentiation of psychopathic personalities according to the degree of social damage they caused. As personality abnormality classification according to one prominent trait that led to hiding signs of the general psychopathic constitution in clinical description, as the reliance on erroneous genetic theories with idealization of social behavior norms led to the antihuman medical recommendations. The analysis of K. Birnbaum's psychopathological concept confirms the widespread prevalence of 'the degeneration theory' in the views of many German psychiatrists before and after the Nazi ascension to power.

[Latent and simple forms of schizophrenia in the concept of E. Bleuler]. / Latentnaia i prostaia formy shizofrenii v kontseptsii E. Bleuler.

E. Bleuler's concept of latent schizophrenia, its relationship with the form of simple schizophrenia and the foundation of the idea that each form of schizophrenia can be latent are analyzed. Bleuler's interpretation of the meaning of different psychopathological symptoms for the diagnosis of schizophrenia and some innate contradictions of his diagnostic approach (declared criteria of absoluteness) are discussed. Different influences of Bleuler's concept on the following national concepts of schizophrenia and its development in the Russian psychiatry are noted.

[Syndrome of «delusional fantasies¼ in the concept of K. Birnbaum]. / Sindrom «bredopodobnogo fantazirovaniya¼ v kontseptsii K. Birnbauma.

The author analyzes the features of the syndrome of «delusional fantasies¼ (delusion-like fantasies) in the concept of K. Birnbaum. According to this concept, psychopathic constitutions, due to the presence in the structure of dissociation, are the basis for the development of delusions per se. «Dreamer¼ and «vershroben¼ types are predisposed to the syndrome of «delusional fantasies¼. It is emphasized that initially the syndrome of «delusional fantasies¼ was described as a peculiar phasic episode of delusions in psychopaths, aged between 20-30 years. In the current domestic literature, delusion-like fantasies are regarded as non-delusional bizarre fantastic ideas in children and adolescent patients.

[Understanding of psychopathological constitutions and mental defect in the concept of Th. Ziehen]. / Ponimanie psikhopaticheskikh konstitutsii i psikhicheskogo defekta v kontseptsii T. Tsiena.

The author analyzed a symptom concept of Th. Ziehen that had competed with the Kraepelin nosological concept of mental disorders. The classification of psychopathological constitutions and defective states in mental diseases used by Th. Ziehen is discussed. The particular significance given by Th. Ziehen to overvalues in the formation of psychopathological phenomena and sexual perversions as major characteristics of the general type of inherited psychopathic constitution is emphasized. The Th. Ziehen's definition of psychopathic constitution is compared to Kraepelin's conception of psychopathic personality.

[Mental signs of individual predisposition to madness in French psychiatry of the late XIX-early XX centuries].

The author analyze conceptions of mental signs of predisposition (diathesis, vulnerability) to non-psychotic and delusional mental disorders of functional origin described in the works of leading French psychiatrists of the late 19th/early 20th centuries (E. Regis, P. Serieux, J. Capgras, E. Dupre, J. Levy-Valensi etc). The descriptions of characteristics of some constitutional types and the differences in the structure of constitutional types and the structure of delusional disorders developed on their basis are compared.