Sensation seeking and hormones in men and women: exploring the link.

Risky behaviors (e.g., binge drinking, drunk driving, risky sex) are increasing among U.S. college students, and the personality trait of sensation seeking provides a potential link between such norm-breaking behaviors and biological processes. We examined the relationship between sensation-seeking behaviors and two hormones, testosterone and cortisol, in male and female college students. Hormone levels were hypothesized to contribute to the variability of individual scores on Zuckerman's Sensation-Seeking Scale. As expected, males scored higher on the scale than females, but the data failed to support the generally accepted positive relationship between testosterone and sensation seeking for either sex. Instead, our results support the existence of a significant inverse relationship between cortisol and sensation seeking in men, but not in women, even after adjustment for testosterone levels and age. Our study contributes to the current literature by (a) supporting the association between risky behavior and a hormone other than testosterone, (b) being the first to examine the association between cortisol and sensation seeking in women, and (c) identifying a possible effect of gender on the association between hormones and sensation-seeking behaviors. Gendered social norms and expectations are likely to be partly responsible for this effect. Theory-guided interdisciplinary research is needed to improve understanding of the biological influences on human behavior, and special attention must be paid to social context, women's perceptions of their expected behavior, and gendered socialization regarding norm-breaking or risky behaviors, which may obscure biological links to female behavior.

Biosocial aspects of domestic violence.

Domestic violence, defined as acts of verbal abuse and physical violence performed against women by current intimate main partners, was surveyed by means of the Conflict Tactics Scale. We examined the relationships between a biological variable (testosterone level), social variables (demographics, social integration), and behaviour (substance use) and self-reported domestic violence. Forced-entry OLS regression models allowed us to study how social and behavioural variables modified the effects of testosterone on this specific violent behaviour. The sample consisted of 54 men who had a main sexual partner and who identified themselves as Black, White, or Hispanic. The men were recruited from various social-service-agency sites in the area of Miami, Florida, on the basis of their risk factors for HIV/AIDS. The sample can best be described as culturally diverse men of low socioeconomic status who had a main sexual partner. A high percentage of participants reported some level of both verbal and physical aggression towards their partners. Testosterone levels were significantly associated with levels of both verbal aggression and physical violence self-reported by the men. Testosterone level, demographic characteristics, and alcohol consumption contributed to explaining the variance in self-reported verbal and physical abuse. The high heritability of testosterone level and its association with violent behaviour warrant the inclusion of this variable in studies of antisocial and criminal behaviour including domestic violence.

Relationship dynamics, ethnicity and condom use among low-income women.

CONTEXT: Women's protection against HIV and sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) depends upon their ability to negotiate safer sex. It is important to know how cultural norms and gender roles, which vary by ethnicity, may either constrain or encourage negotiation of condom use. METHODS: Questionnaires were completed by 393 low-income non-Hispanic black, Hispanic and non-Hispanic white women who were sexually active and attending family planning and STD clinics and other public health and social service centers in Miami in 1994 and 1995. Multivariate logit techniques were used to identify ethnic differences in relationship dynamics and to determine couple- and individual-level factors associated with consistent use, occasional use or nonuse of condoms. RESULTS: Black and Hispanic women reported higher levels of consistent condom use (15-17%) than did white women (4%). Nearly all black and white women (90-95%) said that they were extremely or somewhat comfortable talking about condoms with their partner, whereas 76% of Hispanic women did so. A larger proportion of Hispanic women (55%) reported joint contraceptive decision-making than did black women (26%) or white women (31%). Among women who reported that their partner made contraceptive decisions, 28% used condoms consistently or occasionally, compared with 24% among women who made the decision themselves. When the couple made the decision jointly, 41% of them were condom users. Hispanic women scored the lowest on a scale of condom-related self-efficacy, yet also reported the highest levels of confidence in their condom negotiating skills. Multivariate analysis indicated that, compared with white women, black and Hispanic women were more likely to be consistent condom users than nonusers (odds ratios, 10.2 and 18.9, respectively). Women who shared financial decision-making with their partner were almost 80% less likely to be a consistent condom user, and women who did not participate in financial decisions were more than 90% less likely to do so, than were women who made monetary decisions independently. CONCLUSIONS: HIV prevention and intervention programs should emphasize birth control discussion between partners and the development of condom-related self-efficacy and negotiation skills, and these programs also should customize prevention messages according to ethnicity and social context.

Dual-method use among an ethnically diverse group of women at risk of HIV infection.

CONTEXT: Few U.S. women protect themselves against both pregnancy and sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) by using an efficient contraceptive method and a condom. Understanding the factors that influence dual-method use could help improve interventions aimed at encouraging protective behaviors. METHODS: Interviews were conducted with 552 low-income women at risk of HIV who attended public health or economic assistance facilities in Miami in 1994 and 1995. Multinomial logit analyses were used to determine the influence of women's background characteristics, perceived vulnerability to pregnancy and AIDS, and relationship characteristics on the odds of dual-method use. RESULTS: Overall, 20% of the women used dual methods. Women who were not married, who worried about both pregnancy and AIDS, who had ever had an STD, who were confident they could refuse a sexual encounter in the absence of a condom and who made family planning decisions jointly with their partner were the most likely to use dual methods rather than a single method (odds ratios, 2.0-3.5); those who considered the condom only somewhat effective in preventing AIDS or who shared economic decision-making with their partner were the least likely to use dual methods rather than a single method (0.5-0.6). The results were generally similar in analyses examining the odds of dual-method use involving an efficient contraceptive, except that black and Hispanic women were significantly more likely than whites to use condoms in conjunction with efficient contraceptives (3.3-7.1). CONCLUSIONS: Both women's individual characteristics and the context of their sexual relationships influence whether they simultaneously protect themselves from pregnancy and HIV. The involvement of male partners in family planning decision-making and women's control over economic decision-making ensure greater protection against HIV infection.

PIP: Promotion of condom use among women who use efficient contraception is essential to protect them from sexually transmitted diseases (STDs), including HIV, as well as pregnancy. However, fear of negative reactions from a male partner may prohibit dual method use among women who are economically dependent on men. To understand the factors that influence dual method use, interviews were conducted with 522 low-income US women at risk of HIV who attended 21 public health, family planning (FP), and STD clinics or economic assistance centers in Miami, Florida (US), in 1994-95. 54% were concerned about both pregnancy and AIDS; 32% were worried about AIDS only and 5% about pregnancy only. 20% of respondents reported dual method use; overall, 36% of women used condoms (either alone or along with another method). The rate of dual method use was 16% among Whites, 24% among Blacks, and 21% among Hispanics. The likelihood of dual method use was significantly enhanced (odds ratio, 2.0-3.5) among women who were not married, worried about both pregnancy and AIDS, had ever had an STD, were confident they could refuse sex with a man who would not use a condom, and made FP decisions jointly with their partner. Women who regarded condoms as only somewhat effective in preventing HIV infection or who shared economic decision-making with their partner rather than making such decisions alone were least likely to use dual methods. Black and Hispanic women were significantly more likely than White women to use condoms in conjunction with efficient contraception.

Ethnic differences in sexual decisions and sexual behavior.

Previous investigators have reported ethnic differences in the expression of sexual decision making and sexual behaviors in women. In a sample of women of low socioeconomic status between ages 18 and 45, we examined the influence of ethnicity and other variables (age, education, marital status, and comfort in discussing sex) on (i) who makes decisions on the timing and type of sex, (ii) whether a woman engages in vaginal, oral, and anal sex, (iii) the frequencies of each type of sex, and (iv) whether or not a woman has multiple partners. Multivariate analyses showed that, independent of other independent variables, ethnicity had little direct effect on most variables. The notable exception was that ethnicity influenced joint decision making regarding the timing and type of sexual activities for Hispanic but not for African American women. We conclude that ethnicity contributes to differences in sexual behaviors but that other variables are equally important.

Magic Johnson and children's conceptions of AIDS.

Longitudinal data for a heterogeneous sample of 609 elementary school children are used to assess the long-term effects of Magic Johnson's announcement on children's HIV and AIDS conceptions. Four hypotheses are tested concerning these relationships, and background variables measured prior to Johnson's announcement are controlled. Findings suggest that Johnson's announcement increased children's HIV and AIDS knowledge and reduced their prejudice toward a hypothetical child with AIDS. No relationship is evident between the announcement and perceived vulnerability to HIV and AIDS. Males are more likely to be aware of Johnson's announcement, but its effects are more pronounced among blacks. Findings from the present research affirm the potential for celebrities like Johnson in HIV and AIDS education campaigns directed toward children.

Factors associated with use of the female condom.

Black, Hispanic and white women recruited for an HIV prevention intervention were instructed in the use of the female condom and encouraged to try the device. Of the 231 women who completed the intervention, 29% tried the condom over the course of a month; 30% of those who tried it used it during at least half of their sexual encounters. Both ethnicity and age were associated with trying the device: Nearly 40% of black women and 30% of Hispanic women did so, compared with 18% of white women; 37% of those aged 25-34 tried the female condom, compared with 22% of women younger than 25. Trying the device was more likely among women living with a partner, those with a history of sexually transmitted disease infection, women who had had an HIV test, those who did not believe that the method afforded them a greater degree of overall control than did the male condom and those who had no prior knowledge of the device. Among women who used the device during at least half of their sexual encounters, 27% were black and 44% were Hispanic: 38% were younger than 25, and 43% were single. More regular users were about half as likely as less regular users to experience difficulty with insertion and one-eighth as likely to report the device slipping during use; they were more likely than less regular users to report that sex was more pleasurable with the female condom than with the male condom.

PIP: As part of a project to test a behavioral intervention for women at risk of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), women recruited from sexually transmitted disease clinics, family planning clinics, and state economic service centers in Miami, Florida (US), during 1994-95 were offered free supplies of the female condom. 66 of 231 program participants (29%) tried the female condom; 20 (30%) used it for more than half of their sexual encounters in a 1-month period. Both ethnicity and age were associated with acceptance of female condoms. 40% of Black women, 30% of Hispanic women, and 18% of White women tried the female condom; 37% of those 25-34 years old compared with 22% of women younger than 25 years used the device. Among women who used the female condom for more than half their sexual encounters, 27% were Black and 44% were Hispanic; 38% were under 25 years old and 43% were single. 47% of users had a positive response to the method at first use; after 1 month of use, this rate rose to 75%. 85% of women felt more in control of disease protection for themselves when using the female condom than the male condom. Finally, regular users were about half as likely as irregular users to experience difficulty with condom insertion and more likely to report that sex was more pleasurable with the female condom than the male condom. These findings suggest the female condom could be an important element in HIV prevention campaigns, especially those targeted to Black and Hispanic women, and that method satisfaction increases with regular use.

Children's AIDS-related knowledge and attitudes: variations by grade, race, gender, socioeconomic status, and size of community.

Variations of AIDS-related beliefs by grade, race, gender, socioeconomic status, and size of the community were examined for a diverse group of elementary school children (n = 609). Consistent with prior research, beliefs about HIV transmission and willingness to interact with persons with AIDS increased across grades 1 to 5. Black children living in rural communities held most misconceptions about AIDS and, relative to white peers, black children were more reluctant to interact with persons with AIDS (PWA). Support for more negative attitudes toward PWA among boys was also found. Knowledge of transmission mediated grade and sex differences in willingness to interact, but not race differences. Implications of results for AIDS prevention programs are discussed, along with directions for future research.

The association between substance use, condom use and sexual risk among low-income women.

Substance use is frequently assumed to be associated with higher levels of sexual risk-taking and lower levels of condom use. An analysis of 668 black, Hispanic and white low-income women at public health and public assistance facilities in Miami show that 19% engaged in risky sexual behavior over the preceding six months, 24% in substance use and 31% in condom use. Overall, substance users are nearly four and one-half times more likely to take sexual risks than nonusers, but are about half as likely to have relied on condoms. When the probability of condom use is considered in the context of both substance use and sexual risk, substance users who take sexual risks appear just as likely to rely on condoms as are nonusers who take sexual risks and those who do not (odds of 0.43-0.49). However, substance users who do not take sexual risks are much less likely to use condoms (odds of 0.15). This pattern holds among black, Hispanic and white women, and suggests that perceptions of risk and the risks that partners bring to sexual encounters may be more important determinants of condom use than substance use per se.

PIP: 668 Black, White, and Hispanic low-income women at 21 public health, sexually transmitted disease (STD), and family planning clinics or state economic service centers in Miami provided data on their sex behavior, drug and alcohol consumption, and condom use. The data were collected from September 1994 through February 1995. Any participant who reported having had sex with three or more partners in the preceding 6 months, exchanging sex for drugs or money in the preceding 6 months, or having a sex partner who they believe has had sex with men or had injected drugs was classified as a sexual risk-taker. Any woman who had taken any recreational drugs in the past 6 months or had drank alcohol before having sex over the same period was classified as a substance user. 19% of the women engaged in risky sex behavior over the preceding 6 months, 24% in substance use, and 31% in condom use. Overall, the substance users are almost 4.5 times more likely to take sexual risks than nonusers, and about half as likely to have used condoms. Substance users who take sexual risks seem just as likely to use condoms as nonusers who take sexual risks and those who do not. However, substance users who do not take sexual risks are far less likely to use condoms. This pattern holds among Black, White, and Hispanic women, and suggests that perceptions of risk and the risks that partners bring to sexual encounters may be more important determinants of condom use than substance use alone.

Assessing children's conceptions of AIDS.

Assessed intuitive theories of AIDS transmission through clinical method interviews in a cross-sectional design for a sample of 205 1st; 195 3rd; and 208 5th-grade students, balanced by sex and race (black/white). Analyses of relationships between the types of theories children held and their responses to closed-end questions about transmission and willingness to interact with a person with AIDS supported the validity of the interview method. Grade differences were noted for knowledge of high-risk routes, rejection of misconceptions, and cohesiveness and complexity of children's theories. Theories also differed by race and verbal abilities. Implications for most appropriate ways to assess children's understanding of illnesses and directions for future research are discussed.

The Development and Implementation of a Cognitive-Based Intervention Aimed at Culturally Diverse Women at Risk for HIV/AIDS.

The development and implementation of a culturally and gender sensitive, cognitive behavioral-intervention program aimed at preventing high-risk sexual and drug-use behaviors among culturally diverse women at risk for HIV/AIDS is described. The intervention stressed education, cultural/social barriers to change, and assertiveness/negotiation skill building. Methodological problems and their solutions are presented. The article stresses ways to recruit poor at-risk women, how to reduce attrition using incentives such as providing transportation, having food and child care at the intervention sessions, financial rewards, and a tracking system that includes many friends and family members of the participant. Preliminary findings indicated that the intervention was successful in promoting knowledge about HIV/AIDS. At the end of the six-week intervention protocol, the intervention group compared to the control group showed significant improvements in HIV/AIDS knowledge items dealing with clinical aspects of the disease, transmission knowledge, and partner risk knowledge. Knowledge, along with motivation to reduce risk and negotiation skills are essential in changing behaviors that put one at risk.

Early childhood differentials in mother-child AIDS-information interaction.

To date there have been no systematic inquiries into 1) the extent of parent-child AIDS interaction; or 2) the factors that influence whether young children and their parents talk about AIDS. In our sample, from a medium-sized Southern metropolitan area, 70 percent of mothers of children in the first, third, and fifth grades said they had talked to their child about AIDS, but only 41 percent of the mothers said their child had asked them questions about AIDS. Fourteen hypotheses about factors which might influence mother-child AIDS interaction are derived from the health/sex socialization literature. In the process of testing these bivariate hypotheses it is shown that, although sons and daughters are equally likely to ask their mother questions about AIDS, mothers are more likely to talk to their daughters than their sons about AIDS. This pattern maintains even after controls are introduced. It is suggested that discussing AIDS with young children as a health issue rather than waiting until adolescence and discussing it as a sex issue may be a more effective socialization route. Mothers may be able to do this with young daughters in the context of women's health, but because most AIDS education for adults generally is sex- rather than health-oriented they may lack the knowledge and framework to do this with their sons.

Young children's awareness, knowledge, and beliefs about AIDS: observations from a pretest.

Starting from the assumption that AIDS education can be most effective when initiated prior to the age when AIDS risk behaviors emerge, a number of researchers and public health officials have advocated AIDS education for preadolescents. Yet there have been few published reports assessing children's awareness, knowledge, and attitudes about AIDS and persons with AIDS. In this paper, basic data are presented for each of these dimensions broken down by race, gender, and grade. The data suggest that, although many students are aware of AIDS by the first grade, it is not until the fifth grade that nearly all students are aware of the existence of the disease. Over all, nearly 44% of the students who know about the disease believe that they or someone they know will get it. Students in the fifth grade have a higher level of AIDS knowledge than those in the first grade, but even the former are relatively uniformed and have a number of misconceptions about the disease and persons with it. Children's attitudes reflect confusion and some anxiety over AIDS and the treatment of persons with it. Some significant race and gender differentials are noted.

Substance use among women at risk for HIV infection.

This article reports results from a survey of culturally diverse women at risk for HIV infection in south Florida. Data concerning their substance use and its association with HIV risk behaviors are presented. Results indicate levels of consumption which exceed expectations based on general estimates of female substance use. Further, substance use was associated with specific behaviors and lifestyles which placed the women at increased risk for HIV infection.

Effects of maternal stress on puberty, fertility and aggressive behavior of female mice from different intrauterine positions.

We examined the effects of maternal stress (bright light and heat) during the last third of pregnancy on subsequent reproductive and behavioral characteristics of female mice from different intrauterine positions. Female mice that develop in utero between two male fetuses (2M females) differ from females that develop between two female fetuses (0M females) in their serum concentrations of both testosterone and estradiol during the fetal period of sexual differentiation. After birth, 0M and 2M females differ in a wide range of reproductive characteristics. We examined the effects of maternal stress on the response to social cues regulating the timing of first vaginal estrus and the length of the first postpubertal estrous cycle when 4 0M or 4 2M females were housed together next to an adult male. Maternal stress decreased the inhibitory effect of being housed with other females in terms of the length of the first postpubertal estrous cycle, but this only occurred in 0M females. We found no effect of maternal stress or intrauterine position on the capacity to mate and remain pregnant, regardless of whether 0M or 2M females were stressed or not stressed during early pregnancy prior to implantation. While there was no effect of prior intrauterine position on interfemale aggression or behavior toward young, maternal stress did tend to reduce the likelihood that females (in diestrus) would exhibit aggression toward other females.

AIDS knowledge and risk behaviors among culturally diverse women.

This article reports results from a survey of women at risk for HIV infection. The sample (n = 620) included black (50.6%), white (28.7%), Hispanic (13.4%), and Haitian (5.0%) adult women from south Florida. Data concerning their AIDS knowledge, prevalence of risk behaviors, and perceived vulnerability are presented. Results indicate differences in certain knowledge areas and risk behaviors by race/ethnicity and a consistent incidence of unprotected sex with their main partners across all racial/ethnic groups.

PIP: Florida has the 3rd highest cumulative number of AIDs cases among states in the US, and 12% in Florida are women, which is 3% higher than the national average. The study describes the AIDs knowledge and sexual behavior of women at high risk of HIV infection in 1989 from Dade and Broward counties in Florida. As part of a 3-year project, it was designed to develop a cross sectional description of women at risk, and to develop and evaluate interventions aimed at perinatal AIDs prevention. 620 nonpregnant women were recruited from county jails and detention centers (59.3%), county health, STD, and family planning clinics (26%), alcohol/drug treatment centers (13.6%), and other (1.1%). The mean age of respondents was 28.9 years. 51% were never married, and 76% had 1-3 children. 45% were unemployed. 21% reported income from prostitution and 17% from illegal activity. 44% had ever engaged in prostitution. 83% had used an illegal substance of which 22% was IV drugs. 8.7% were seropositive. 71% received AIDs, STDs, contraception, and sexuality information from the mass media, and 59% from medical professionals and public health clinics. The limitations were the representatives of the sample, and the validity and reliability of the questionnaire. The results of AIDs knowledge, risk behavior, and vulnerability revealed that the majority were well informed about AIDs and HIV infection, with the exception of Haitians. The findings support treating Haitian women as a special population for AIDs prevention programs. Those 20 and 41 years tended to believe myths about AIDs and casual contact and perceived risk based on the appearance of an individual. 75% were unaware of bleach as a remedy for dirty needles. As a subcultural influence, people need more knowledge about safer drug use. Knowledge did not influence risky behavior. Transmission appears to be from heterosexual contact. A greater prevalence of sexual risk behavior was reported with main partners even though 75% agreed one couldn't trust lovers in reporting STDs. Program focus on prostitutes may have limited impact. Hispanics reported the greatest prevalence of risk behaviors, followed by whites, blacks, and Haitians. Over 40% of Hispanic and Haitian and 20% of black women reported intention to not use a condom with a seropositive partner. Economics and gender role norms are a great influence. There was a general lack of perceived vulnerability. Successful community and society level strategies involve continued education, sociocultural sensitivity, gender role issues, sexual decision making, and economic factors.

Paradoxical effects of maternal stress on fetal steroids and postnatal reproductive traits in female mice from different intrauterine positions.

We examined effects of maternal stress on prenatal serum concentrations of testosterone and estradiol and on postnatal reproductive traits in female mice from different intrauterine positions. On Day 18 of fetal life, control females positioned in utero between two male fetuses (2M females) had higher concentrations of testosterone and lower concentrations of estradiol in serum than control female fetuses located between two females (0M females). Control females positioned between a male and a female fetus (1M females) had intermediate levels of both hormones. Prior intrauterine position in control females accounted for differences in genital morphology (length of the anogenital separation) at birth and length of estrous cycles during adulthood. Maternal stress eliminated these postnatal differences due to prior intrauterine position: all 0M, 1M, and 2M female offspring of stressed mothers exhibited postnatal traits that were indistinguishable from those of control 2M females. Maternal stress resulted in an increase of over 1 ng/ml in serum testosterone in all female fetuses; the magnitude of the increase was similar for 0M, 1M, and 2M females. There was no effect of maternal stress on serum concentrations of estradiol in 0M and 2M female fetuses. Maternal stress resulted in a dramatic change in the postnatal traits of 0M females, whereas 2M females showed no change. Since the effect of maternal stress on sex steroids was similar among fetuses from different intrauterine positions but postnatal response to maternal stress varied by intrauterine position, other components of the endocrine system may mediate effects of maternal stress on these postnatal characteristics.

Lesions in the preoptic area suppressed sexual receptivity in ovariectomized rats with estrogen implants in the ventromedial hypothalamus.

The objective of the experiment was to determine if electrolytic ablation of a portion of the preoptic area (POA) influenced the activation of female lordosis behavior by implants of estradiol benzoate in the ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH) of ovariectomized (OVX) rats. Two weeks after ovariectomy, rats received either bilateral electrolytic lesions (2 mA for 10 sec in Experiment 1, or 1 mA for 5 sec in Experiment 2) in the POA, or sham lesions (all procedures except passage of current). On the same day (day 0 of the experiment) thirty-gauge stainless steel cannulae containing crystalline estradiol benzoate were stereotaxically placed bilaterally into the VMH of all the rats. Subsequently, females were tested for the lordosis response to stud males on days 2, 4, 6, 8, and 10 in Experiment 1 or on days 7, 14 and 15 in Experiment 2. All rats received 0.5 mg progesterone (SC) only before the last test. A female was considered sexually receptive if she exhibited a lordosis quotient (LQ) greater than or equal to 10 (LQ = No. lordosis responses/10 mounts by male X 100). The frequencies for sexual receptivity in females with POA lesions were significantly lower than those for control females without lesions in both experiments. Additionally the degree of receptivity (lordosis quotient) was significantly lower on each test day for rats with POA lesions than that for rats without POA lesions. The results imply that the maintenance of the integrity of the POA under this experimental condition was important for the expression of the facilitative influence of the VMH on lordotic responsiveness.

The effects of intrauterine position on competition and behavior in the mouse.

The purpose of the present study was to examine the effect of intrauterine position on: (1) competition for limited food resources when the animals were previously deprived of food; (2) social preference for a male during various phases of the estrous cycle; and (3) social and sexual behavior when the animals were provided with like-treated females or receptive females, respectively. Females developing in utero between two males (2M females) and females developing between two females (0M females) were different on only one measure recorded during the competition for limited food, i.e., gaining control of the food pellet, with the 0M females outcompetiting the 2M females. When given a choice between a male or a female neither 2M or 0M females in estrus showed a preference for the male. The results also indicated that 2M females were significantly more aggressive and more likely to show male sexual behavior when compared to 0M females.