Muscle Tissue as a Surrogate for In Vitro Drug Release Testing of Parenteral Depot Microspheres.

Despite the importance of drug release testing of parenteral depot formulations, the current in vitro methods still require ameliorations in biorelevance. We have investigated here the use of muscle tissue components to better mimic the intramuscular administration. For convenient handling, muscle tissue was used in form of a freeze-dried powder, and a reproducible process of incorporation of tested microspheres to an assembly of muscle tissue of standardized dimensions was successfully developed. Microspheres were prepared from various grades of poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) or ethyl cellulose, entrapping flurbiprofen, lidocaine, or risperidone. The deposition of microspheres in the muscle tissue or addition of only isolated lipids into the medium accelerated the release rate of all model drugs from microspheres prepared from ester-terminated PLGA grades and ethyl cellulose, however, not from the acid-terminated PLGA grades. The addition of lipids into the release medium increased the solubility of all model drugs; nonetheless, also interactions of the lipids with the polymer matrix (ad- and absorption) might be responsible for the faster drug release. As the in vivo drug release from implants is also often faster than in simple buffers in vitro, these findings suggest that interactions with the tissue lipids may play an important role in these still unexplained observations.

In-vitro drug release testing of parenteral formulations via an agarose gel envelope to closer mimic tissue firmness.

Current in vitro drug-release testing of the sustained-release parenterals represents the in vivo situation insufficiently. In this work, a thin agarose hydrogel layer surrounding the tested dosage form was proposed to mimic the tissue. The method was applied on implantable formulations of different geometries (films, microspheres, and cylindrical implants); prepared from various polymers (several Resomer® grades or ethyl cellulose) and loaded with different model drugs: flurbiprofen, lidocaine or risperidone. The hydrogel layer did not possess any retarding effect on the released drug and acted as a physical restriction to swelling and/or plastic deformation of the tested dosage forms. This led to a different surface area available for drug-release compared with testing in release medium alone and correspondingly to significantly different release profiles of the majority of the formulations obtained between the two methods (e.g. t50% = 18 days in pure release medium vs. t50% = 26 days in gel-setup for risperidone loaded Resomer® 503 H films or t50% = 7 days vs. t50% = 19 days for risperidone loaded Resomer® 503 H microspheres). The limited space for swelling and the rigidity of the agarose gel might mimic the tight encapsulation of the dosage form in the tissue better than the conventional liquid medium.

Silk Fibroin as a Novel Alcohol-Resistant Excipient for Sustained-Release Tablet Formulation.

Concomitant intake of alcoholic beverages with sustained-release oral formulations may potentially lead to dose dumping. Alcohol-resistance testing is currently a requirement for the manufacturers by regulatory authorities. Silk fibroin produced by silkworm Bombyx mori is suggested in this work as a potential alternative to a narrow spectrum of alcohol-resistant excipients. Oxycodone HCl, tramadol HCl, and flurbiprofen were selected as model drugs and formulated with regenerated silk fibroin either in the form of an amorphous solid dispersion or as a physical mixture and compressed into tablets. Preliminary compactability and tampering-resistance studies were performed. The ethanol-resistance was tested in media containing 5%, 10%, 20%, or 40% (v/v) ethanol concentration. Drug release profiles were compared using f2 similarity factor. Good mechanical tampering-resistance (tensile strength of 14.6 MPa at 400 MPa compression pressure) was obtained for tablets compressed from physical mixture. Tablets compressed from amorphous solid dispersion had lower tensile strength (2.2 MPa) but showed chemical tampering-resistance to extraction by pure ethanol (7.1% of oxycodone HCl after 24 h). Drug release is controlled predominantly by swelling and diffusion. With an increasing ethanol concentration in release medium, the tablets swelled less, resulting in a slower release. This trend was similar for all tested drugs and for both physical states formulations. No dose dumping occurred in the presence of ethanol; therefore, silk fibroin could be considered as an alternative alcohol-resistant excipient for sustained release application.

Nanoparticulates with drug release based on temperature change.

UNLABELLED: The stimuli-induced release systems are able to respond to an external stimulus resulting in drug release in a controlled pattern. The origin of the external stimuli may be of physical, chemical or biological nature. Thermo-responsive delivery systems respond to the change in temperature and they were mainly designed in order to be used in the cancer treatment method using elevated temperature, i.e. hyperthermia. The thermo-responsive systems can be divided into several groups, such as thermo-responsive hydrogel polymer systems, liposomes, nano- or microparticles, and polypeptide-drug conjugates. While liposomes are temperature-sensitive by their nature, the other systems are usually based on thermo-sensitive polymers, namely poly-(N-isopropyl-acrylamide). This article summarizes recently available items of information regarding thermo-responsive drug delivery. KEYWORDS: drug delivery system thermo-responsive system poly-(N-isopropyl-acrylamide) liposome nanoparticle polypeptide-drug conjugate.

Optimization of diclofenac sodium profile from halloysite nanotubules.

Halloysite, aluminosilicate clay with the particle shape of multilayered hollow nanotubes, used in various non-medical applications, e.g. in ceramic industry, was discovered for pharmaceutical purposes in recent years. Several drugs of hydrophilic and lipophilic nature have been successfully encapsulated into halloysite tubules in order to modify their dissolution profile. The main goal of this experiment was to optimize the dissolution profile of diclofenac sodium - a drug with problematic solubility - from halloysite tubules using various polymers. Loading of the drug together with povidone or Eudragit® RS did not lead to drug burst effect reduction and its slower dissolution. In the case of povidone, drug improved wettability and solubilization rather than viscosity increasing expectations were observed. Eudragit® RS formed a solid dispersion with diclofenac sodium and thus the solvent/drug solution penetration through the polymer and not the drug solubility was the dissolution rate limiting factor. Reduction of the burst effect and further prolongation of drug release was achieved by coating the drug-loaded halloysite with chitosan. This formulation exhibited a diffusion-controlled prolonged release following Higuchi kinetic model.

Diclofenac sodium entrapment and release from halloysite nanotubules.

UNLABELLED: Halloysite was found to have interesting nanotubular geometry viable for the entrapment of various active agents. In this experiment, the ability of hollow halloysite cylinders to entrap the anionic model drug diclofenac sodium and to retard drug dissolution rate was investigated. Drugs could be incorporated into layered tubules via three different mechanisms: adsorption, intercalation and tubular entrapment. Based on the adsorption studies, some diclofenac sodium was shown to be adsorbed to the polyionic mineral surface despite its permanent negative charge. The X-ray powder diffraction analysis (XRPD) results did not prove any intercalation reaction to occur. The most important drug-loading mechanism involved the tubular entrapment with encapsulation efficiency 48.1%. The drug release from halloysite was prolonged in comparison with the dissolution of pure drug. Halloysite itself as well as halloysite loaded with the drug proved to be appropriate material to form pellets by extrusion /spheronization method. KEYWORDS: halloysite diclofenac sodium drug entrapment pellets prolonged drug release.

The development of Eudragit® NM-based controlled-release matrix tablets.

UNLABELLED: Eudragit® NM was investigated as a matrix former in combination with microcrystalline cellulose as an insoluble filler for preparing controlled-release tablets containing model drugs with different solubility. MATERIAL AND METHODS: Three sets of matrix tablets differing in the drug-to-filler ratio (1:1, 2:1, and 4:1) and polymer amount with diltiazem hydrochloride (freely soluble) or caffeine (sparingly soluble) were prepared. Samples were evaluated by the dissolution test at pH 6.8 corresponding to the upper part of the small intestine; the selected samples were tested at a changing pH level to better simulate in vivo conditions. RESULTS: The prepared matrix tablets fulfilled all the requirements of the European Pharmacopoeia. Tablets with Eudragit® NM showed excellent mechanical characteristics. In vitro studies showed that the set 1:1 was the most suitable for the sustained release of a freely soluble drug concerning the burst effect and the total drug amount released within 12 hours. The significant effect of the drug-to-filler ratio and polymer amount on the dissolution profile was confirmed by similarity factor analysis. A faster drug release was observed during the dissolution test within changing pH levels because of the pH-dependent solubility of diltiazem. A prolonged release of the sparingly soluble drug was not achieved, and a trend for fast disintegration was observed. CONCLUSIONS: The combination of Eudragit®NM with microcrystalline cellulose as an insoluble filler seems to be suitable only for freely soluble drugs, when the amount of the drug and the filler is similar.

Stability testing of alginate-chitosan films.

Pellets containing rutin prepared by the extrusion/spheronization method were coated with sodium alginate-chitosan film. Important quality parameters in the pellets before coating were determined, and after coating the dissolution profiles of the drug were evaluated in dissolution media of the pH corresponding to the conditions in the gastrointestinal tract. Samples of coated pellets were located in the boxes for stability testing under different conditions, i.e. 25 degrees C and 60% of relative humidity (RH); 30 degrees C and 65% RH and 40 degrees C and 75% RH. After 1, 3, 6, 9 and 12 months (or 1, 3 and 6 months), the dissolution test was repeated and compared with the original profiles using similarity factors. All similarity factor values above 50 indicate excellent stability of alginate-chitosan films.

Bioadhesive pellets increase local 5-aminosalicylic acid concentration in experimental colitis.

Topical delivery of 5-aminosalicylic acid (5-ASA) to the colonic mucosa is important in order to achieve effective drug concentration in the site of inflammation and to minimize its systemic availability. 5-ASA loaded pellets were prepared by an extrusion/spheronization method. Mucoadhesive biopolymer chitosan was incorporated into the pellets, and drug delivery to the colon was controlled by the pH-sensitive polymer Eudragit® FS. Dissolution profiles of coated pellets revealed no drug release at pH 1.2 within 2h and release as intended in the simulated distal ileum and colon. In vivo, chitosan-core drug loaded pellets (AMCh) showed 2.5-fold higher drug metabolite concentration than after chitosan free pellets (AM) administration in the inflamed colonic tissue. Additionally, AMCh demonstrated decreased in AUC in colitis group (1507 ± 400 ng h/ml) compared with AM (1907 ± 122 ng h/ml). In terms of therapeutic efficiency, administration of pellets markedly decreased the colon/body weight ratio (colitis: 0.0355 ± 0.0028; AM 0.0092 ± 0.0033; AMCh 0.0086 ± 0.0022) and myeloperoxidase activity (colitis: 3212 ± 294 U/g tissue; AM 796 ± 211 U/g; AMCh 552 ± 319 U/g). Bioadhesive chitosan pellets showed additional beneficial properties for colonic 5-ASA delivery in the treatment of inflammatory bowel disease by increasing the drug concentration locally.

Halloysite - interesting nanotubular carrier for drugs.

Halloysite is a naturally occurring mineral similar to kaolin, possessing a special particle shape in the form of ultramicroscopic multi-layered hollow cylinders. It is utilizable in many industrial branches and due to its advantages, e.g. biocompatibility, drug entrapment, high mechanical strength and easy natural availability also on the pharmaceutical field and in medicine. It can bind drugs on the surface or inside of tubules and increase drug stability or change its release. Surface of the tubules can be readily modified for the application in drug delivery systems. Halloysite was reported as promising material for bone implants and controlled delivery of biomacromolecules. This review is dealing with pharmaceutical and biomedical usage of this interesting material and is including original experimental work published recently.

Coated chitosan pellets containing rutin intended for the treatment of inflammatory bowel disease: in vitro characteristics and in vivo evaluation.

Preparation of coated pellets intended for rutin colon delivery, their evaluation in vitro and in vivo in experimental colitis in rats was the purpose of this study. Pellets were obtained using extrusion/spheronization and coated with three types of coatings (caffeic acid/hypromellose/alginic acid; sodium alginate/hypromellose/zinc acetate; sodium alginate/chitosan). Dissolution using buffers of pH values, ß-glucosidase and times corresponding to gastrointestinal tract (GIT) was provided. Pellets coated with alginate/chitosan showed low rutin dissolution (12-14%) in upper GIT conditions and fast release (87-89%) under colon conditions; that is a good presumption of intended rutin release. After colitis induction and development, the rats were treated with pellets and rutin solution administered orally, solution also rectally. Colon/body weight ratio, myeloperoxidase activity and histological evaluation were performed. Rutin was able to promote colonic healing at the dose of 10mg/kg: colon/body weight ratio decreased and myeloperoxidase activity was significantly suppressed. Pellets coated with alginate/chitosan applied orally and rutin solution administered rectally showed the best efficacy. The combination of rutin as natural product, mucoadhesive chitosan degraded in the colon and sodium alginate as the main coating substance in the form of pellets create a promising preparation for therapy of this severe illness.

Oxycellulose beads with drug exhibiting pH-dependent solubility.

The aim of this study was to develop novel hydrogel-based beads and characterize their potential to deliver and release a drug exhibiting pH-dependent solubility into distal parts of gastrointestinal (GI) tract. Oxycellulose beads containing diclofenac sodium as a model drug were prepared by the ionotropic external gelation technique using calcium chloride solution as the cross-linking medium. Resulting beads were characterized in terms of particle shape and size, encapsulation efficacy, swelling ability and in vitro drug release. Also, potential drug-polymer interactions were evaluated using Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy. The particle size was found to be 0.92-0.96 mm for inactive (oxycellulose only) and 1.47-1.60 mm for active (oxycellulose-diclofenac sodium) beads, respectively. In all cases, the sphericity factor was between 0.70 and 0.81 with higher values observed for samples containing higher polymer and drug concentrations. The swelling of inactive beads was found to be strongly influenced by the pH and composition (i.e. Na(+) concentration) of the selected media (simulated gastric fluid vs. phosphate buffer pH 6.8). The encapsulation efficiency of the prepared particles ranged from 58% to 65%. Results of dissolution tests showed that the drug loading inside of the particles influenced the rate of its release. In general, prepared particles were able to release the drug within 12-16 h after a lag time of 4 h. Fickian diffusion was found as the predominant drug release mechanism. Thus, this novel particulate system showed a good potential to deliver drugs specifically to the distal parts of the human GI tract.

[Pelletization of melts and liquids]. / Peletizace tavenin a kapalin.

During the second half of the last century, pelletization methods based on wetting were developed, e.g. agglomeration in coating pans, pelletization plates or fluid-bed equipment, layering of the drug in solution or suspension on inactive spherical cores, extrusion/spheronization and later on also rotoagglomeration in rotogranulators or rotoprocessors. These technologies have become a requisite part of industrial production of solid dosage forms. At present, numerous experimental papers deal with pellet preparation from melts and liquids. These new pelletization methods are the topic of the present article. Pellet preparation from melts is represented by three methods, i.e. fluid hot melt agglomeration, hot melt extrusion, and freeze pelletization. Jet cutting and cryopelletization are the techniques dealing with pellet preparation from liquids.

Multiparticulate systems containing 5-aminosalicylic acid for the treatment of inflammatory bowel disease.

BACKGROUND: In recent years, many achievements have been realized in the therapy of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) although its etiology remains unknown. Thus IBD treatment is symptomatic and targets general inflammatory mechanisms. Oral formulations containing 5-aminosalicylic acid (5-ASA) have become the standard therapy for mild-to-moderate IBD. OBJECTIVE: This article is a review of recently published research dealing with new 5-ASA dosage forms. Thus promising candidates for IBD treatment evaluated in vitro are reported; systems tested in vivo in trinitrobenzene sulfonic acid (TNBS)-induced colitis in rats are mentioned; and 5-ASA formulations used in clinical studies are presented. Moreover, all oral dosage forms containing 5-ASA or its prodrugs are reviewed; their characteristics and utilization in IBD treatment are discussed. CONCLUSION: In several clinical studies, it has been shown that multiparticulates such as pellets offer more advantages as compared with single unit forms, that is, coated tablets. Prolonged presence close to the site of the action, improved drug bioavailability, and easier administration of large drug doses belong to the benefits of pellets.

Coated hard capsules as the pH-dependent drug transport systems to ileo-colonic compartment.

PURPOSE: The aim of this study was to investigate the suitability of hard capsules of different composition (gelatin-G, gelatin coated with hydroxypropyl cellulose-G/HPC, and hypromellose-H) for a coating with aqueous dispersion of pH-dependent synthetic polymer Eudragit(®) FS (E(FS)) and to evaluate in vitro the coated capsules as transport systems for ileo-colonic drug delivery. METHODS: Three sets of hard capsules with increasing coating levels (5-30%) were obtained by Wurster technique. The release of model drug (caffeine) from prepared samples was tested using paddle dissolution method with continual pH change (pH 1.2-2 h, 6.8-4 h and 7.5-2 h). RESULTS: During the coating process, no problems occurred and similar suitability of capsules materials for E(FS) application was observed in contrast to some published reports. The application of HPC subcoating onto gelatin capsules surface was shown as the redundant step. The samples G/E(FS)10-15% and H/E(FS)15-20% with 6 h lag time and fast drug release after the pH adjustment to 7.5 corresponded with the requirements for ileic drug delivery. Samples releasing the drug after the pH change to 7.5 in 2-h interval such as G/E(FS) 20%, G/HPC/E(FS) 25% and H/E(FS) 25% are considered as promising transport systems to ileo-colonic area. Samples G/E(FS) 25-30%, G/HPC/E(FS) 30% and H/E(FS) 30% with 7 h lag time could be used for colon delivery. CONCLUSION: The desired intestinal part could be targeted without significant formulation changes only by the selection of capsules shell forming material and suitable E(FS) coating thickness.

Oxycellulose as mucoadhesive polymer in buccal tablets.

BACKGROUND: Oxycellulose (OC) is biodegradable and bioabsorbable cellulose derivative used in medicine to support hemostasis and tissue healing. Recently, its antimicrobial and immunomodulating properties, as well as its potential in modern therapeutic systems as release modifying excipient, drug carrier, and/or mucoadhesive polymer, are widely discussed. METHOD: To study its last-mentioned characteristics, directly compressed tablets containing 5 mg of cetylpyridinium chloride (CPC) as a model drug and 90 mg of mucoadhesive polymer [oxycellulose sodium (NaOC) alone or in a combination with one of five widely used mucoadhesive polymers] were prepared to ensure 8 hours prolonged release of CPC. Physicochemical and mucoadhesive properties of prepared tablets were evaluated. RESULTS: Based on obtained results, tablets containing OC in combination with hydroxypropylmethylcellulose (Methocel K100LV) or carboxymethylcellulose sodium showed the best quality parameters (friability < 0.04%, tablet thickness < 2.17 mm, tablet hardness > 85 N, residence time > 256 minutes, mucoadhesive strength > 3.45 mN/mm(2) ) and dissolution profiles (more than 81% of CPC released within 8 hours). CONCLUSION: NaOC embodies excellent compressing, mechanical, and mucoadhesive properties; however, formulation with higher content of NaOC only showed shorter adhesion time (107 +/- 7 minutes) and faster drug release (93.66% of CPC released within 2 hours), because of its good solubility in aqueous media.

Coated capsules for drug targeting to proximal and distal part of human intestine.

Coated hard capsules are becoming increasingly important for a number of reasons such as administration of new active ingredients, oral vaccination, colon drug delivery or their use in preclinical and clinical trials. The independency of coating composition on capsules filling is the major advantage of this dosage form. In our study, two types of hard capsules (gelatin and hypromellose) were coated by non-aqueous solutions of Eudragit L and S 12.5, respectively, to achieve intestinal and distal ileic drug delivery. Gelatin hard capsules were coated with Eudragit film either directly or using hydroxypropyl cellulose sub-coating prior to the final coating. Hypromellose capsules were coated directly. Coated capsules were evaluated for coating thickness by optical microscope and for dissolution in different pH media. Gelatin capsules do not seem to be suitable for direct coating with Eudragit due to insufficient film adhesion to the smooth capsule surface and a brittleness of formed films. These problems can be solved by hydroxypropyl celullose interlayer application. Hypromellose hard capsules could be directly easily coated with both Eudragit solutions. Dissolution of caffeine from coated capsules showed the potency for enteric delivery in gelatin capsules with interlayer and Eudragit L film in 7.5 and 10.0% concentrations and in hypromellose capsules coated with EudragitL in 5-17.5% coating levels. Gelatine capsules with interlayer and 10% Eudragit S film and hypromellose capsules only with high coating level (20%) provided potential distal ileum targeting of incorporated drug. Eudragit S film sprayed onto hypromellose capsules surface was brittle especially in the junction zone between capsule cap and body. Better plasticity of Eudragit S coating could be probably achieved using a different plasticizer.

Pellets for oral administration of low-molecular-weight heparin.

BACKGROUND: Oral absorption of low-molecular-weight heparin (LMWH) is limited by its molecular size and negative charge. It has been shown previously that orally administered polymeric nano- or microparticles containing encapsulated LMWH have led to gastrointestinal absorption of heparin in rabbits. METHOD: Based on these investigations, pellets containing two LMWHs, enoxaparin (MW 4500 Da) or bemiparin (MW 3600 Da), and EudragitRS30D (ERS), were prepared using extrusion/ spheronization technique. Uncoated or coated (ERS) pellets were evaluated in vitro and in vivo on rabbits. RESULTS: Enoxaparin pellets showed fast in vitro release in phosphate buffer (pH 7.4) and prolonged in vivo drug absorption after a single oral dose of 600 anti-Xa IU/ kg of body weight, leading to relative bioavailabilities ranging from 9.7 +/- 1.9% to 12.8 +/- 2.7% and anti-Xa activity over the curative dose. Bemiparin included in matrix pellets of ERS and coated with ERS exhibited in vitro prolonged release up to 4 hours and in vivo anti-Xa activity below the therapeutic minimum value of 0.1 IU/mL. CONCLUSION: This study presents LMWH in a pellet dosage form, which compared to nano- or microparticles, may offer a more convenient and industrializable way of manufacture leading to an easier scale-up process.