Effect of chronic cyclic heat stress and supplemented inorganic and organic zinc source levels on grow-finish pig growth performance and estimated body composition.

Zinc (Zn) supplementation has proved to mitigate the effects of heat stress with varying effects evident with Zn source during acute heat events. However, the effects of Zn supplementation during long-term summer weather patterns have yet to be explored. Therefore, the objective of this study was to identify the effects of supplementation source and level of Zn to mitigate the negative effects of long-term, cyclic heat stress in finishing swine. Six hundred cross-bred pigs were housed under thermoneutral (TN) or cyclic heat (HS) conditions simulating summer heat with acute 3-d heat waves for a 70-d study. Thermoneutral conditions were 16.7 to 18.9 °C throughout the study. HS pigs were housed at the same temperature as TN from days 0 to 18, then 28 °C/24 °C for 12 h/12 h on days 18 to 21, followed by 30 °C/26.7 °C for 12 h/12 h on days 24 to 70, except during acute heat (32 to 33 °C/29 to 30 °C, 12 h/12 h) on days 21 to 24, 42 to 45, and 63 to 66. Treatments were arranged in a 2 × 6 factorial with main effects of environment (HS vs. TN) and dietary available Zn supplementation: (1) 50 mg/kg zinc oxide (ZnO), (2) 130 mg/kg ZnO, (3) 50 mg/kg of organic Zn (Availa Zn), (4) 50 mg/kg ZnO + 40 mg/kg organic Zn, (5) 50 mg/kg ZnO + 60 mg/kg organic Zn, and (6) 50 mg/kg ZnO + 80 mg/kg organic Zn. Pigs (5 pigs/pen) were blocked by initial body weight (72.2 kg) and randomly allotted to 1 of 12 temperature and diet treatment combinations across 10 replicates. Body weight and feed intake were determined at the beginning and end of each acute heat event. All pigs were ultrasonically scanned at the 10th rib (TR) to predict loin muscle area (LMA), backfat (BF), and percent lean. Data were analyzed by the MIXED procedure in SAS with pen as the experimental unit. At day 63, HS pigs were lighter (P < 0.05), had lower overall average daily gain (ADG; P < 0.05) and average daily feed intake (P < 0.05). A diet-by-environment interaction was observed for overall ADG (P < 0.05) with diet 5 HS pigs having a 3.9% reduction in ADG whereas diet 6 had 14.4% reduction in ADG, while under TN temperatures diet 6 had the greatest overall ADG of all treatments. Other diets were intermediate in their ADG under both HS and TN conditions. Pigs under HS had less BF at the TR (P < 0.05) and a smaller LMA (P < 0.05), and a greater calculated percent lean (P < 0.05). Our results indicate that a blend of supplemental Zn sources at 50/60 mg/kg may mitigate the reduction in growth performance due to HS. While not directly contrasted, the NRC requirement of 50 mg/kg Zn may be too low to optimize finishing pig growth performance under both TN and HS conditions.

Interactions between corticotropin releasing factor signaling and prophylactic antibiotics on measures of intestinal function in weaned and transported pigs.

The study objective was to evaluate the interaction between corticotrophin releasing factor (CRF) receptor signaling and prophylactic antibiotic administration on intestinal physiology in newly weaned and transported pigs. Pigs (n = 56; 5.70 ± 1.05 kg) were weaned (20.49 ± 0.64 d), a blood sample was taken, and then pigs were given an intraperitoneal injection of saline (SAL; n = 28 pigs) or a CRF receptor antagonist (CRFA; n = 28 pigs; 30 µg/kg body weight; Astressin B), and then were transported in a livestock trailer for 12 h and 49 min. A second and third intraperitoneal injection was given at 4 h 42 min and 11 h 36 min into the transport process, respectively. Following transport, 4 SAL and 4 CRFA pigs were blood sampled and euthanized. The remaining 48 pigs were individually housed and given dietary antibiotics [AB; n = 12 SAL and 12 CRFA pigs; chlortetracycline (441 ppm) + tiamulin (38.6 ppm)] or no dietary antibiotics (NAB; n = 12 SAL and 12 CRFA pigs) for 14 d post-transport. Blood was collected at 12 h and on d 3, 7, and 14, and then pigs were euthanized on d 7 (n = 24) and d 14 (n = 24) post-weaning and transport. Circulating cortisol was reduced (p = 0.05) in CRFA pigs when compared to SAL pigs post-weaning and transport. On d 7, jejunal villus height and crypt depth was greater overall (p < 0.05) in AB-fed pigs versus NAB-fed pigs. On d 14, ileal crypt depth was reduced (p = 0.02) in CRFA pigs when compared to SAL pigs. Jejunal CRF mRNA abundance tended to be reduced (p = 0.09) on d 7 in CRFA pigs versus SAL pigs. On d 14, jejunal tumor necrosis factor-alpha was reduced (p = 0.01) in AB-fed pigs versus NAB-fed pigs. On d 7, change in glucose short-circuit current tended to be increased (p = 0.07) in CRFA pigs fed the AB diet when compared to CRFA pigs fed the NAB diet. In conclusion, CRFA pigs and pigs fed AB had some similar biological intestinal function measures post-weaning and transport.

The effect of reduced CP, synthetic amino acid supplemented diets on growth performance and nutrient excretion in wean to Finish swine.

Mixed sex pigs (n = 720) were placed in 12 rooms (Purdue Swine Environmental Research Building) to measure the effect of reduced crude protein (CP), amino acid (AA)-supplemented diets on growth and the carcass. Pigs were blocked by body weight (BW) and gender and allotted to room and pen (10 mixed-sex pigs/pen). Pigs were fed a nine-phase, wean-finish program. Control pigs consumed corn-soybean meal-distiller's dried grains with solubles (DDGS) diets containing no to minimal (Met) synthetic AA. The 2X diet was formulated to meet the seventh most-limiting AA, and balanced using synthetic AAs to meet all AA needs. The 1X diet was formulated to meet a CP value halfway between the control and 2X diet, and also balanced using synthetic AAs to meet all AA needs. Diets were formulated to identical net energy concentrations and balanced to meet standard ileal digestible NRC 2012 AA requirements. Pit vacuum samples were collected at the end of each growth phase for analyses of nitrogen, C and dry matter (DM). Pigs fed the Control and 1X diet grew faster (P < 0.005), had greater gain:feed (P < 0.001), and were heavier at market (P < 0.001) than animals fed the 2X diet. No consistent effects of diet were observed on average daily feed intake. Carcass data were analyzed for sex, diet and sex*diet effects. Reductions in dietary CP resulted in a linear reduction in ammonium nitrogen excretion per kg of BW gain in Nursery (P < 0.001) and Grow-Finish (P < 0.001) phases. Reductions in dietary CP, with synthetic AA supplementation resulted in a linear reduction in total nitrogen excreted per kg BW gain in the Grow-Finish phase (P < 0.001) and overall (P < 0.001). Total mineral excretion per kg gain was reduced in pigs fed 1X and 2X diets compared with control-fed pigs (P < 0.005). Reductions in dietary CP of ~3 and 5%-units from wean-finish result in reductions of total N excretion of 11.7 and 24.4%, respectively. Reduced performance and carcass characteristics observed in pigs fed the 2X diets indicates an inaccurate estimate of NRC 2012 AA requirements or ratios to lysine in a low CP diet.

Current status of recycled water for agricultural irrigation in Australia, potential opportunities and areas of emerging concern.

Three per cent of Australian agricultural irrigation comes from recycled water. The 1990s establishment of states' Environment Protection Authorities and their regulatory standards and effluent disposal charges led to effluents from Wastewater Treatment Plants (WWTPs) being used for agricultural irrigation. Adelaide and Melbourne, with agricultural land close to plants, expanded intensive vegetable industries. Sydney has limited land available and discharges 90% of its sewage through deep ocean outfalls after primary treatment. Brisbane with more distant farms, found pumping effluent hard to justify economically. Some larger regional cities/towns purchased farms to manage discharges as commercial businesses. Others market recycled water to nearby growers. Uses depend on treatment standards. Water with secondary treatment and pathogen reduction is suitable for processed crops, grazed or cut pastures, sugar cane, cotton and wine grapes, and is widely used for amenity horticulture, but requires careful salinity management. Water with tertiary treatment meeting log reduction pathogen standards may be used on food crops eaten raw (e.g. lettuce). Commonwealth government subsidies during the millennium drought (2001-2009) supported WWTP upgrades and irrigation infrastructure expansion. However, seasonal water demand and unwillingness of growers to pay full cost recovery prices led to some recycled waters still being discharged to water bodies. Some schemes over-estimated likely irrigation demand. Currently, there is scope for further developing recycled water agricultural irrigation by submitting business cases for subsidies from the new National Water Grid Authority. But there is increasing interest in the potential use of recycled water for drinking water augmentation, for which Australia has had guidelines since 2008. Perth has capacity for 28 hm3/yr recycled water to replenish its groundwater drinking sources while Brisbane has three plants totalling 84 hm3/yr for indirect potable supply, but not yet operating. Recycled water for critical human needs could eventually out-compete agricultural irrigation.

The effect of dietary vitamin D supplementation on sodium-dependent phosphate uptake and expression of NaPi-IIb in the small intestine of weanling pigs.

Two experiments were conducted to investigate the effects of 1,25(OH)2D3 to stimulate Na+-dependent phosphate uptake in Caco-2 cells, and the effects of dietary vitamin D supplementation to vitamin D-deficient nursery pigs on Na+-dependent nutrient uptake and mRNA expression of NaPi-IIb cotransporter and calbindin D9k in the jejunum. In Exp. 1, 250,000 Caco-2 cells were seeded on Costar 12 mm Snapwell inserts with a 0.40 µm polycarbonate filter and a seeding density of 0.25 × 106 and studied at 15 d postconfluence. Cells were treated with 10 nM of either 1,25(OH)2D3 or vehicle for 48 h and then mounted in modified Ussing chambers for transepithelial measurements. In Exp. 2, pigs (n = 32) were removed from sows at 3 d of age, placed on a vitamin D-deficient milk replacer diet and housed in a room devoid of sunlight and UV light in the range of 280 to 300 nm. On day 28, serum 25(OH)D3 concentrations were measured to verify low vitamin D status. Pigs (BW 10.10 ± 0.38 kg) were then individually housed day 28 postweaning and allotted to 1 of 2 dietary treatments. Dietary treatments consisted of corn-soybean-based diets with vitamin D supplementations of 0 or 1,500 IU/kg diet for 12 d. Blood samples were taken from the brachiocephalic vein on the initial (day 0) and final day (day 10, 11, or 12) of the study for analysis of serum 25(OH)D3, P, and Ca. Pigs were euthanized and jejunal segments were harvested and used in modified Ussing chambers and for RNA isolation and subsequent quantitative RT-PCR analysis. In Exp. 1, treating Caco-2 cells with 10 nM 1,25(OH)2D3 resulted in a 52% increase (P < 0.005) in Na+-dependent phosphate uptake compared with cells treated with a vehicle. In Exp. 2, Na+-dependent phosphate and glucose transport did not differ (P > 0.10) among treatment groups. Additionally, NaPi-IIb and calbindin D9k mRNA expression were not different (P > 0.10) between treatment groups. No differences (P > 0.10) were detected in final serum P or 25(OH)D3 concentrations between treatments. However, serum Ca linearly increased (P < 0.05) as the concentration of supplemental vitamin D increased in the diet. Overall, while 1,25(OH)2D3 stimulated Na+-dependent phosphate uptake in Caco-2 cells, supplementing diets with 1,500 IU/kg vitamin D3 from cholecalciferol did not increase jejunal Na+-dependent phosphate uptake or NaPi-IIb mRNA expression over that of pigs fed diets with no supplemental cholecalciferol.

Time course determination of the effects of rapid and gradual cooling after acute hyperthermia on body temperature and intestinal integrity in pigs.

Rapid cooling after acute hyperthermia may cause a sustained increase in body temperature and exacerbate intestinal damage in pigs. Therefore, the study objective was to evaluate the temporal effects of rapid and gradual cooling on body temperature response and intestinal integrity after acute hyperthermia in pigs. In three repetitions, 54 pigs [83.3 ± 6.7 kg initial body weight (BW)], balanced by sex were exposed to thermoneutral conditions for 6 h (TN; n = 6 pigs/repetition; 21.1 ± 2.0°C), or heat stress conditions (HS; 39.3 ± 1.6°C) for 3 h, followed by a 3 h recovery period of gradual cooling [HSGC; n = 6 pigs/repetition; gradual decrease from HS to TN conditions] or rapid cooling [HSRC; n = 6 pigs/repetition; rapid TN exposure and cold water (4.0°C) dousing every 30 min for 1.5 h]. Feed was withheld throughout the entire 6 h period, but water was provided ad libitum. Gastrointestinal (TGI) and rectal (TR) temperatures were recorded every 15 min during the HS and recovery periods. Six pigs per repetition (n = 2/treatment) were euthanized and jejunal and ileal samples were collected for histology immediately after (d 0), 2 d after, and 4 d after the recovery period. Data were analyzed using PROC MIXED in SAS 9.4. Overall, rapid cooling reduced TR and TGI (P < 0.01; 0.95°C and 0.74°C, respectively) compared to gradual cooling. Jejunal villus height was reduced overall (P = 0.02; 14.01%) in HSGC compared to HSRC and TN pigs. Jejunal villus height-to-crypt depth ratio was reduced overall (P = 0.05; 16.76%) in HSGC compared to TN pigs. Ileal villus height was reduced overall (P < 0.01; 16.95%) in HSGC compared to HSRC and TN pigs. No other intestinal morphology differences were detected. In summary, HSRC did not cause a sustained increase in body temperature and did not negatively impact biomarkers of intestinal integrity in pigs.

Effects of antibiotic-free pig rearing on ammonia emissions from five pairs of swine rooms in a wean-to-finish experiment.

Antibiotic use and ammonia (NH3) emissions during animal production are two environmental issues of worldwide concern. However, the role of antibiotics on NH3 emissions is still unknown. This study evaluated the effects of rearing pigs without antibiotics on NH3 emissions from a swine experimental building starting with 657 piglets during a wean-to-finish production cycle of 154 days. Pigs were reared in two groups of 10 rooms that were divided into five 2-room pairs (P1-P5) and fed in nine dietary phases. Each pair consisted of one room without antibiotics (no antibiotics in the diet, water, or injectable) and another room as a positive control. Control animals were fed diets containing carbadox-10 (phases 1-4), chlortetracycline (CTC, phase 5), lincomix (phases 6-7), and tylan 40 (phases 8-9). Temperatures in the pig living space and the under-floor manure pit headspace were continuously measured. Ventilation rates at all wall fans and pit fans were obtained by continuous monitoring. Ammonia concentrations in the wall and pit fan exhaust air, and in room inlet air were measured with two multi-gas monitors. Only days that contained at least 18 h of data each day were validated and used. The study generated 1337 room-days of valid data of NH3 emission rates, with a data completeness of 88.6%. Daily mean NH3 emission patterns demonstrated large variations between the paired rooms and among different pairs. Within the individual 2-room pairs, no NH3 emission differences were found in P1 (rooms 1 and 2, p = 0.34) and P2 (rooms 3 and 4, p = 0.44). Significant differences were found in P3-P5 (p < 0.01). The antibiotic-free rooms emitted more NH3 from P3 and P4, but less NH3 from P5. However, the combined cycle mean NH3 emissions from the group of five antibiotic-free rooms and the group of five control rooms were 41.6 ±â€¯10.5 and 39.4 ±â€¯10.6 g d-1 AU-1 (mean ±â€¯standard deviation. AU = 500 kg live body weight), respectively. Therefore, there was no statistical difference in combined cycle mean NH3 emissions from rearing pigs with or without antibiotics (p = 0.78). This study also revealed that experiments with multiple replicates and long NH3 monitoring durations were necessary to avoid potential misinterpretation of experimental results.

Auditory brainstem responses in weaning pigs and three ages of sows.

Piglet crushing is a devastating welfare concern on swine farms; however, some sows appear unresponsive to a piglet's call. Sow hearing ability is rarely considered despite the extensive body of research performed on crushing. In this study, pigs of four age groups (weaning, n = 7; gilts, n = 5; 2nd and 3rd parity, n = 5; 5th parity and up, n = 5) were anesthetized and auditory brainstem responses (ABRs) were performed to measure if pig hearing diminishes with age in a mechanically ventilated barn. Before testing, pigs were placed in a sound dampening box. ABRs were performed on animals using 1,000 clicks at two decibel (dB) levels: 90 and 127 dB sound pressure level. Latencies and amplitudes of waves I-V were measured and interpeak latencies for waves I-III, III-V, and I-V were calculated. Five pigs (three 2nd and 3rd parity, and two 5th parity and above) had no detectable waves at either decibel. Sows in 2nd and 3rd parities had very few distinguishable waves, with only wave I and II present in two sows. Amplitudes of waves I and V increased with increased dB (P < 0.001). Increasing dB decreased the latency of each of the recorded waves (P < 0.01). The vast majority of commercial swine are raised in noisy barn environments; it is possible that these environments directly affect the ability for pigs to hear and normal hearing development in this population of animals. Hearing has a significant effect on swine welfare as hearing is integral to successful animal handing and during moments of animal-to-animal communication. Hearing is a considerable welfare issue on farms and ways to decrease pig hearing loss should be considered.

Hydrogen sulfide emissions from a swine building affected by dietary crude protein.

Hydrogen sulfide (H2S) is a toxic air pollutant at animal facilities; but the understanding of its generation and emission processes has been limited. This paper studied H2S emissions during a complete cycle of wean-finish pigs from a research building, where 12 pig rooms were divided into three groups that were fed with standard feed (control), and 2.1-3.8% (T1) and 4.4-7.8% (T2) reduced dietary crude protein (CP) feed. The group cycle mean H2S emission rates were 4.0 ± 2.9, 4.3 ± 3.2, and 5.4 ± 4.0 g d-1 AU-1 (Animal Unit = 500 kg live mass), respectively, for the control, T1, and T2 groups. Emissions of H2S were promoted by 10.0 and 36.7%, respectively, for the T1 and T2 groups (p < 0.001), although large variabilities existed in the emissions from different rooms within the same groups. The enhanced H2S emissions from the T1 and T2 groups were related to the reduced manure pH and were possibly affected through a number of pathways, which could involve volatile fatty acids and nitrogen concentrations, and microbial activities in manure.

Preventing, treating, and predicting barbering: A fundamental role for biomarkers of oxidative stress in a mouse model of Trichotillomania.

Barbering, where a "barber" mouse plucks hair from its cagemates or itself, is both a spontaneously occurring abnormal behavior in mice and a well validated model of Trichotillomania (TTM). N-Acetylcysteine, (NAC) a cysteine derived food additive, is remarkably effective in treating TTM patients, but its mechanism of action is unknown. Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS), also known as free radicals, form as a natural byproduct of the normal metabolism of oxygen. Under normal circumstances, cells are able to defend themselves against ROS damage with antioxidant pathways. NAC is the precursor to the main antioxidant produced to defend the brain. Therefore, we hypothesized that barbering is a disease of oxidative stress, whereby ROS and/or a failure of antioxidant defenses leads to neuronal damage that induces barbering in susceptible animals. We tested this hypothesis in 32 female C57BL/6J mice by treating half with 1g/kg BW/day of NAC in their diet, and testing for protection against developing barbering behavior and curing of barbering behavior, and simultaneously testing for a panel of biomarkers of oxidative stress. NAC reduced the chance that mice would be barbers, and this effect did not differ between healthy (i.e. prevention) and affected animals (i.e. cure). Barbering animals had elevated urinary antioxidant capacity, indicative of oxidative stress, at all timepoints. Additionally, after treatment the risk of barbering increased with decreasing hydroxy-2'-deoxyguanosine (8-OHdG) levels, and with increasing glutathione (GSH) and oxidized glutathione (GSSG) levels, further indicating that barbering mice were under oxidative stress regardless of treatment with NAC. We did not find compelling evidence that urinary total antioxidant capacity, or urinary 8-OHdG, could predict response to NAC treatment. We conclude that NAC is effective in preventing and/or curing barbering at least in part by promoting GSH synthesis, thereby preventing oxidative damage.

Mitigation of ammonia emissions from pig production using reduced dietary crude protein with amino acid supplementation.

To mitigate ammonia (NH3) emissions from pig production and understand dynamic emission profiles, reduced dietary crude protein (CP) with amino acid supplementation was studied with 720 pigs in a 12-room research building for 155days that covered from weaned to finishing stages. The pigs were divided into three 4-room groups and fed with 2.1-3.8% reduced CP (T1), 4.4-7.8% reduced CP (T2), and standard (control) diets, respectively. Compared with the control group, T1 and T2 decreased manure volumes and manure NH4+-N concentrations. Group-mean NH3 emission from the control group was 68.9gd-1AU-1 (AU=500kg live mass). Emissions from T1 (46.7gd-1AU-1) and T2 (29.8gd-1AU-1) were reduced by 33.0% and 57.2% (p<0.05), respectively. Dynamic peak NH3 emissions appeared during the third nursery phase for T1 and T2, but delayed to the first grower phase for the control group.

Effect of High-Calcium Diet on Coronary Artery Disease in Ossabaw Miniature Swine With Metabolic Syndrome.

BACKGROUND: Calcium is a shortfall essential nutrient that has been a mainstay of osteoporosis management. Recent and limited findings have prompted concern about the contribution of calcium supplementation to cardiovascular risk. A proposed mechanism is through the acceleration of coronary artery calcification. Determining causality between calcium intake and coronary artery calcification has been hindered by a lack of sensitive methodology to monitor early vascular calcium accumulation. The primary study aim was to assess the impact of high calcium intake on coronary artery calcification using innovative calcium tracer kinetic modeling in Ossabaw swine with diet-induced metabolic syndrome. Secondary end points (in vitro wire myography, histopathology, intravascular ultrasound) assessed coronary disease. METHODS AND RESULTS: Pigs (n=24; aged ≈15 months) were fed an atherogenic diet with adequate calcium (0.33% by weight) or high calcium (1.90% from calcium carbonate or dairy) for 6 months. Following 5 months of feeding, all pigs were dosed intravenously with (41)Ca, a rare isotope that can be measured in serum and tissues at a sensitivity of 10(-18) mol/L by accelerator mass spectrometry. Kinetic modeling evaluated early coronary artery calcification using (41)Ca values measured in serial blood samples (collected over 27 days) and coronary artery samples obtained at sacrifice. Serum disappearance of (41)Ca and total coronary artery (41)Ca accumulation did not differ among groups. Secondary end points demonstrated no treatment differences in coronary artery disease or function. CONCLUSION: There was no detectable effect of high calcium diets (from dairy or calcium carbonate) on coronary artery calcium deposition in metabolic syndrome swine.

Consumption of calcium-fortified cereal bars to improve dietary calcium intake of healthy women: randomized controlled feasibility study.

UNLABELLED: Calcium is an important structural component of the skeletal system. Although an adequate intake of calcium helps to maintain bone health and reduce the risk of osteoporosis, many women do not meet recommended daily intakes of calcium. Previous interventions studies designed to increase dietary intake of women have utilized primarily dairy sources of calcium or supplements. However, lactose intolerance, milk protein allergies, or food preferences may lead many women to exclude important dairy sources of dietary calcium. Therefore, we undertook a 9 week randomized crossover design trial to examine the potential benefit of including a non-dairy source of calcium in the diet of women. Following a 3 week run-in baseline period, 35 healthy women > 18 years were randomized by crossover design into either Group I or Group II. Group I added 2 calcium-fortified cereal bars daily (total of 400 mg calcium/day) (intervention) to their usual diet and Group II continued their usual diet (control). At the end of 3 weeks, diets were switched for another 3 weeks. Intakes of calcium and energy were estimated from 3-day diet and supplemental diaries. Wilcoxon signed-rank tests were used for within group comparisons and Mann Whitney U tests were used for between group comparisons of calcium and energy intake. Dietary calcium was significantly higher during intervention (1071 mg/d) when participants consumed 2 calcium-fortified cereal bars daily than during the baseline (720 mg/d, P <0.0001) or control diets (775 mg/d, P = 0.0001) periods. Furthermore, the addition of 2 calcium-fortified cereal bars daily for the 3 week intervention did not significantly increase total energy intake or result in weight gain. In conclusion, consumption of calcium-fortified cereal bars significantly increased calcium intake of women. Further research examining the potential ability of fortified cereal bars to help maintain and improve bone health of women is warranted. TRIAL REGISTRATION: ClinicalTrials.gov NCT01508689.

Vitamin D intakes of children differ by race/ethnicity, sex, age, and income in the United States, 2007 to 2010.

The 2007-2010 National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey was used to estimate vitamin D intakes of children 1 to 18 years old in the United States by race/ethnicity, sex, age, and family using 24-hour dietary intake recalls and dietary supplement use questionnaires. We hypothesized that total, dietary, and supplemental vitamin D intakes of children would differ by race/ethnicity, sex, age, and income. Statistical analyses of weighted data were performed using Statistical Analysis Software (V 9.2) to estimate means ± SE. Race and ethnic intake differences controlling for poverty income ratio (PIR), sex, and age were assessed by analysis of covariance. Total (dietary and supplement) vitamin D intake was greater in the high (7.9 ± 0.3 µg/d) vs the medium (6.5 ± 0.3 µg/d) income group, but not the low (7.2 ± 0.2 µg/d) PIR group. Total vitamin D intake of non-Hispanic (NH) white children (8.1 ± 0.2 µg/d) was greater than Hispanic (7.0 ± 0.2 µg/d) and NH black (5.9 ± 0.2 µg/d) children. Total vitamin D intake declined with age, and intake by boys was higher than girls. Only 17.4% of the children consumed supplements containing vitamin D. Overall, mean intake of vitamin D by all children in each age and ethnic group was lower than the estimated average requirement for vitamin D. Public health efforts should encourage consumption of foods high in vitamin D, expand the number of foods fortified, and target health messages to parents to increase use of vitamin D supplements by children.

Vitamin D intakes of adults differ by income, gender and race/ethnicity in the U.S.A., 2007 to 2010.

OBJECTIVE: To determine if dietary, supplemental and total vitamin D intakes in the USA are influenced by income, race/ethnicity or gender. DESIGN: Cross-sectional. US vitamin D intakes were estimated by poverty income ratio (PIR), race/ethnicity and gender using 24 h dietary intake recalls and dietary supplement use questionnaires. Statistical analyses of weighted data were performed using SAS (version 9.2) to estimate means and their standard errors. Race and ethnic intake differences controlling for PIR, gender and age were assessed by ANCOVA. SUBJECTS: Adults aged ≥19 years. SETTING: The 2007-2010 National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, USA. RESULTS: Total (dietary and supplement) vitamin D intake was greater in the high (10.0 (se 0.30) µg/d) v. the medium (7.9 (se 0.3) µg/d) or the low (8.0 (se 0.3) µg/d) PIR categories. Total vitamin D intake of non-Hispanic Whites (10.6 (se 0.4) µg/d) was greater than that of Hispanics (8.1 (se 0.3) µg/d) and non-Hispanic Blacks (7.1 (se 0.3) µg/d). Supplemental vitamin D intake was greater by females (5.3 (se 0.2) µg/d) than by males (3.3 (se 0.2) µg/d). Participants with high income were more likely to be vitamin D supplement users (33.0%) than those with medium (22.5%) or low (17.6%) income. High-income non-Hispanic Whites had the lowest percentage (57%) not meeting the Estimated Average Requirement for vitamin D. Fortified milk and milk products provided 43.7% of the dietary vitamin D intake. CONCLUSIONS: Public health efforts should expand the number of vitamin D-fortified foods and encourage the consumption of foods high in vitamin D and use of supplements.

The relationship of breakfast skipping and type of breakfast consumed with overweight/obesity, abdominal obesity, other cardiometabolic risk factors and the metabolic syndrome in young adults. The National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES): 1999-2006.

OBJECTIVE: To examine the association between breakfast skipping and type of breakfast consumed with overweight/obesity, abdominal obesity, other cardiometabolic risk factors and the metabolic syndrome (MetS). DESIGN: Cross-sectional. Three breakfast groups were identified, breakfast skippers (BS), ready-to-eat-cereal (RTEC) consumers and other breakfast (OB) consumers, using a 24 h dietary recall. Risk factors were compared between the breakfast groups using covariate-adjusted statistical procedures. SETTING: The 1999­2006 National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, USA. SUBJECTS: Young adults (20­39 years of age). RESULTS: Among these young adults (n 5316), 23.8% were BS, 16.5% were RTEC consumers and 59.7% were OB consumers. Relative to the BS, the RTEC consumers were 31%, 39%, 37%, 28%, 23%, 40% and 42% less likely to be overweight/obese or have abdominal obesity, elevated blood pressure, elevated serum total cholesterol, elevated serum LDL-cholesterol, reduced serum HDL-cholesterol or elevated serum insulin, respectively. Relative to the OB consumers, the BS were 1.24, 1.26 and 1.44 times more likely to have elevated serum total cholesterol, elevated serum LDL-cholesterol or reduced serum HDL-cholesterol, respectively. Relative to the OB consumers, the RTEC consumers were 22%, 31% and 24% less likely to be overweight/ obese or have abdominal obesity or elevated blood pressure, respectively. No difference was seen in the prevalence of the MetS by breakfast skipping or type of breakfast consumed. CONCLUSIONS: Results suggest that consumption of breakfast, especially that included an RTEC, was associated with an improved cardiometabolic risk profile in U.S. young adults. Additional studies are needed to determine the nature of these relationships.

Do breakfast skipping and breakfast type affect energy intake, nutrient intake, nutrient adequacy, and diet quality in young adults? NHANES 1999-2002.

OBJECTIVE: To assess the impact of breakfast skipping and type of breakfast consumed on energy/nutrient intake, nutrient adequacy, and diet quality. DESIGN: Cross-sectional. SETTING: The National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES), 1999-2002. SUBJECTS: Young adults (20-39 years, n = 2615). MEASURES: A 24-hour dietary recall was used, with breakfast defined as self-reported. Covariate-adjusted sample-weighted means for the entire day's energy/nutrient intakes, mean adequacy ratio (MAR) for nutrient intakes, and diet quality (i.e., Healthy Eating Index [HEI]-2005) scores were compared using analysis of variance and Bonferroni's correction (p < 0.0167) among breakfast skippers (BS), ready-to-eat-cereal breakfast consumers (RTECC), and other breakfast consumers (OBC). Energy/nutrient intakes and food consumption at breakfast were also compared (p ≤ 0.05). RESULTS: Twenty-five percent of young adults were BS, 16.5% were RTECC, and 58.4% were OBC. Intakes of total energy, percent energy from carbohydrate, and dietary fiber were higher in RTECC than in BS and OBC. Percent energy intake from added sugars was higher in BS than in RTECC and OBC. Compared with BS and RTECC, OBC consumed a lower percent energy from carbohydrates and total sugars, but consumed a higher percent energy from total fat and discretionary solid fats and had a higher cholesterol intake. Intakes of several micronutrients were higher in RTECC than in BS and OBC. Both MAR and total HEI scores were the highest in RTECC and higher in OBC than in BS. The HEI scores for intakes of whole fruits, total/whole grains, milk, and percent energy from solid fat/alcohol/added sugar were the highest in RTECC and higher in OBC than in BS. Compared with OBC, RTECC had a higher HEI score for the intake of saturated fat. At breakfast, RTECC consumed higher intakes of total fruits, whole grains, dairy products, carbohydrates and total sugars, dietary fiber, and several micronutrients than OBC, who consumed higher intakes of meat/poultry/fish, eggs, total fat, discretionary oils/solid fats, cholesterol, and sodium than RTECC. CONCLUSION: Thus, RTECC had more favorable nutrient intakes and better diet quality than BS and OBC.

The relationship of breakfast skipping and type of breakfast consumption with nutrient intake and weight status in children and adolescents: the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 1999-2006.

BACKGROUND: National data comparing nutrient intakes and anthropometric measures in children/adolescents in the United States who skip breakfast or consume different types of breakfasts are limited. OBJECTIVE: To examine the relationship between breakfast skipping and type of breakfast consumed with nutrient intake, nutrient adequacy, and adiposity status. SUBJECTS: Children aged 9 to 13 years (n=4,320) and adolescents aged 14 to 18 years (n=5,339). DESIGN: Cross-sectional data from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 1999-2006. METHODS: Breakfast consumption was self-reported. A 24-hour dietary recall was used to assess nutrient intakes. Mean adequacy ratio (MAR) for micronutrients and anthropometric indexes were evaluated. Covariate-adjusted sample-weighted means were compared using analysis of variance and Bonferroni's correction for multiple comparisons among breakfast skippers (breakfast skippers), ready-to-eat (RTE) cereal consumers, and other breakfast (other breakfast) consumers. RESULTS: Twenty percent of children and 31.5% of adolescents were breakfast skippers; 35.9% of children and 25.4% of adolescents consumed RTE cereal. In children/adolescents, RTE cereal consumers had lower intakes of total fat and cholesterol and higher intakes of total carbohydrate, dietary fiber, and several micronutrients (P<0.05 for all) than breakfast skippers and other breakfast consumers. RTE cereal consumers had the highest MAR for micronutrients, and MAR was the lowest for breakfast skippers (P<0.05). In children/adolescents, breakfast skippers had higher body mass index-for-age z scores (P<0.05) and a higher waist circumference (P<0.05) than RTE cereal and other breakfast consumers. Prevalence of obesity (body mass index > or = 95th percentile) was higher in breakfast skippers than RTE cereal consumers (P<0.05) in children/adolescents and was higher in other breakfast consumers than RTE cereal consumers only in adolescents (P<0.05). CONCLUSIONS: RTE cereal consumers had more favorable nutrient intake profiles and adiposity indexes than breakfast skippers or other breakfast consumers in US children/adolescents.