Continuity of care: is it cost effective?

OBJECTIVE: To examine the association between the degree of healthcare provider continuity and healthcare utilization and costs. STUDY DESIGN: A longitudinal, prospective, observational study. PATIENTS AND METHODS: Data on patients with arthritis, asthma, epigastric pain/peptic ulcer disease, hypertension, and otitis media were collected at each of 6 health maintenance organizations (HMOs). Outcome variables included the number of prescriptions for the target disease and the cost, total number of prescriptions and the cost, the number of outpatient visits, and the number of hospital admissions. Disease-specific severity of illness, type of visit, and provider information were obtained at each encounter. HMO profit status, visit copay, gatekeeper strictness, formulary limitations, use of multisource (generic) drugs, gender, number of months in the study, age, and severity of illness were controlled in the analyses. RESULTS: There were 12,997 patients followed for more than 99,000 outpatient visits, 1000 hospitalizations, and more than 240,000 prescriptions. Increasing the number of primary or specialty care providers a patient encountered during the study generally was associated with increased utilization and costs when HMO and patient characteristics were controlled. The number of specialty care providers also increased as the number of primary care providers increased. The incremental increase in pharmacy costs per patient per year with each additional provider ranged between $19 in subjects with otitis media to $58 in subjects with hypertension. CONCLUSIONS: Continuity of care was associated with a reduction in resource utilization and costs. As healthcare delivery systems are designed, care continuity should be promoted.

Early discharge of premature infants. A critical analysis.

Although significant advances in the medical management of acutely ill preterm infants have resulted in unprecedented rates of survival, issues surrounding the convalescent care, discharge preparation, and readiness of parents or other caregivers have been less well studied and represent the art of medicine. Recent consensus statements provide a degree of content validity; however, important areas of scientific inquiry remain. Much is left to understand about the pathophysiology, management, and outcomes of apnea, bradycardia, and oxygen desaturation episodes continuing at term. Why do the most immature infants have a delay in the maturation of respiratory control? Do breathing studies really provide information that predicts subsequent respiratory control abnormalities? If methylxanthines are used at discharge, what criteria should be adhered to regarding their discontinuation? How is nutrition best provided while transitioning to home? In infants whose mothers desire exclusive breast-feeding, should gavage feeds be used to supplement in order to avoid bottle-feedings? How long should breast milk be fortified, and when should supplemented artificial milks be used and for what period of time postdischarge should these more expensive special-discharge artificial milks be used? What other supplements, such as inositol, vitamins, or antioxidants, should be provided in order to achieve optimal growth and development? Technology-dependent infants pose even greater complexities. Some infants and families adapt to extensive use of technology in the home. In other situations, basic infant care is difficult to achieve. What are the essential components for successful early discharge, and how can the studies involving selected families be made universal? How can NICUs better prepare fathers and mothers for premature parenthood? To what extent are we overwhelming families with additional responsibilities and expectations that may compromise their competency in basic parenting? Furthermore, the degree of provider variation in evaluating and providing for discharge planning is now being more carefully studied. In some circumstances, integrated teams in the NICU have facilitated the discharge process saving days of hospitalization, whereas in others adherence to discharge planning guidelines has lengthened the stay in the NICU and resulted in higher costs. What is the ideal system for achieving coordination of care without co-opting parental choices in assuming more care responsibility than is comfortable? In the design of tertiary care facilities, more attention to space for rooming-in experiences needs to receive greater priority. Furthermore, because of intensity of care, adverse environmental stimuli, and for issues of better resource utilization, should not most previously ill infants be discharged from level II or intermediate care centers? Finally, issues of increasing decision-making responsibility placed on parents (with the reassurance and guiding hand of dedicated physicians and nurses focused on individual infants) must never be made subservient to the economic whims of insurers to decrease costs without understanding the value of the entirety of the care process for critical illness, through convalescence, to it is hoped a supportive and nurturing environment in the home. Our patients deserve no less. The questions posed present a sample of issues yet to be scientifically addressed. These and many other questions need to be answered before we fully understand the optimal process of discharge for the preterm infant.

A review of guidelines for the discharge of premature infants: opportunities for improving cost effectiveness.

Although significant advances in the medical management of acutely ill preterm infants has resulted in unprecedented rates of survival, issues surrounding the convalescent care, discharge preparation, and readiness of parents or other caregivers has been less well studied and represents the art of medicine. We have summarized various guidelines for early discharge of the premature infant and provide our own recommendations for physiologic stability, social requirements, teaching needs of caregivers, and the coordination of community resources. Technology-dependent infants pose even greater complexities. Some infants and families adapt to extensive use of technology in the home. In other situations, basic infant care is difficult to achieve. What are the essential components for successful early discharge, and how can the studies involving selecting families be made universal? How can NICUs better prepare fathers and mothers for premature parenthood? To what extent are we overwhelming families with additional responsibilities and expectations that may compromise their competency in basic parenting? Furthermore, the degree of provider variation in evaluating and providing for discharge planning is now being more carefully studied. In some circumstances, integrated teams in the NICU have facilitated the discharge process, saving days of hospitalization, whereas in other circumstances, adherence to discharge planning guidelines have lengthened the stay in the NICU and resulted in higher costs. Failure to back transport infants to community NICUs has contributed to deregionalization efforts in some regions and increased cost of care. Efforts to establish regional referral networks with common guidelines and developmentally focused care should lead to a reduction in NICU costs and charges.

The immunization status of children with spina bifida.

OBJECTIVE: To estimate immunization levels among children with spina bifida and describe factors that may influence immunization completeness. RESEARCH DESIGN: Cross-sectional survey. SETTING: Tertiary care referral center. PATIENTS: One hundred twenty children, from 4 months to 18 years of age, seen in the myelodysplasia clinic of Children's Hospital, Boston, Mass, from February through August 1990. RESULTS: Fifty-eight percent of the children 2 years of age or older and 55% of the children 7 years of age or older had completed the immunization series recommended by the American Academy of Pediatrics. All but one child had an identified primary care provider. Lower immunization levels at 24 months of age occurred in older and in poorer children. Most children (80%) received the first diphtheria and tetanus toxoids and pertussis and oral poliovirus vaccines on time. Immunization delay increased from 20% to 50% through the 18-month diphtheria and tetanus toxoids and pertussis and oral poliovirus vaccines and declined to 24% at school entry. CONCLUSIONS: Many children with spina bifida are underimmunized despite having an identified source of primary care.