Biosensors; noninvasive method in detection of C-reactive protein (CRP).

Early diagnosis of C reactive protein (CRP) is critical to applying effective therapies for related diseases. Diagnostic technology in today's healthcare systems is mostly deployed in central laboratories, involves expensive and time-consuming processes, and is operated by specialized personnel. For example, the enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), considered the gold standard diagnostic method, is labor-intensive and requires complex procedures such as multiple washing and labeling steps. Due to these limitations of current diagnostic techniques, it is difficult for people to regularly monitor their health and ultimately the disease is more likely to be diagnosed at a later stage. The problem is exacerbated for economically disadvantaged people living in underdeveloped countries. To address these challenges in the traditional diagnostic field, point-of-care (POC) biosensors have emerged as a promising alternative. This allows patients to have their health checked regularly at or near their bedside without resorting to laboratory tests. Nanotechnology-based methods such as biosensors have been extensively researched and developed. Among biosensors, there are also label-free biosensors with high sensitivity that do not require complicated procedures and reduce test time. However, some drawbacks such as high cost, bulky size and need for trained personnel to operate have not been improved. In this review article, we provide an overview of routine methods in CRP diagnosis and then introduce biosensors as a modern, advanced alternative to older methods. Readers of this article can learn about biosensing and its benefits while being aware of the limitations of routine methods.

Glucocorticoid- ß-adrenoceptors interactions in the infralimbic cortex in acquisition and consolidation of auditory fear memory extinction in rats.

This study investigated the interactive effect of glucocorticoid and ß-adrenoceptors in the infralimbic (IL) cortex on the acquisition and consolidation of fear extinction in rats' auditory fear conditioning (AFC) task. On day 1, rats underwent habituation for 9 min (12 tones, 10 s, 4 kHz, 80 dB, without footshock). On day 2 (conditioning), rats received 3 mild electrical footshocks (US; 2 s, 0.5 mA) paired with the auditory-conditioned stimulus (CS; tone: 30 s, 4 kHz, 80 dB). On days 3-5 (Ext 1-3), rats received 15 tones with no footshock in the test box. Intra-IL injection of corticosterone (CORT, 20 ng/0.5 µl per side) before Ext 1 and after Ext 1-2, respectively, facilitated the acquisition and consolidation of fear memory extinction. Intra-IL injection of the ß2-adrenoceptor agonist clenbuterol (CLEN, 50 ng/0.5 µl per side) inhibited, but the ß-adrenoceptor antagonist propranolol (PROP, 500 ng/0.5 µl per side) enhanced the facilitatory effects of CORT on fear memory extinction. CORT injection before the acquisition of fear extinction increased p-ERK levels in the IL. Co-injection of CORT with CLEN increased, but PROP decreased p-ERK activities. CORT injection after the consolidation of fear extinction increased p-CREB in the IL. Co-injection of CORT with CLEN increased, but PROP reduced p-CREB activities. Our findings show that corticosterone facilitates the acquisition and consolidation of fear memory extinction. GRs and ß-adrenoceptors in the IL jointly regulate fear memory extinction via ERK and CREB signaling pathways. This pre-clinical animal study may highlight the effect of GRs and ß-adrenoceptors of the IL cortex in regulating fear memory processes in fear-related disorders such as PTSD.

BDNF receptor antagonism during the induction of morphine dependence exacerbates the severity of physical dependence and ameliorates psychological dependence in rats.

This study examined the effects of systemic administration of the TrkB receptor antagonist (ANA-12) during induction of morphine dependence on the severity of physical and psychological dependence and the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) BDNF levels in morphine-dependent and withdrawn rats. Rats became morphine-dependent by increasing daily doses of morphine for 7 days, along with ANA-12 injection. Then, rats were tested for the severity of physical dependence on morphine (spontaneous withdrawal signs), anxiety-like (the elevated plus maze), depressive-like (sucrose preference test) behaviors after spontaneous morphine withdrawal. Also, the CSF BDNF levels were assessed 2 h after the last dose of morphine and day 13 after morphine withdrawal in morphine-dependent and withdrawn rats. We found that the morphine withdrawal signs were significantly higher in morphine dependent rats receiving ANA-12 on days of 5-7 after morphine withdrawal, also ANA-12 exacerbated overall dependence severity. While, the percentage of time spent in the open arms and sucrose preference were higher in morphine-dependent rats receiving ANA-12 than morphine-dependent rats receiving saline. Also, the ANA-12 injection decreased the CSF BDNF levels following morphine dependence, while increased it after morphine withdrawal. We conclude that the ANA-12 exacerbated the severity of physical morphine dependence but attenuated the anxiety/depressive-like behaviors in morphine-dependent and withdrawn rats. Also, ANA-12 injection was able to reverse the changes in the CSF BDNF levels. Therefore, ANA-12 is not more likely to complete treatment for opiate addiction.

Beneficial effects of Spirogyra Neglecta Extract on antioxidant and anti-inflammatory factors in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats.

Objectives This study was conducted to evaluate the effects of oral supplementation of Spirogyra algae on oxidative damages and inflammatory responses in streptozotocin (STZ)-induced diabetic rats. Methods Diabetes was induced by administration of 55 mg/kg of streptozotocin. A total of sixty-four rats were divided into eight groups of eight rats each as follows:1) non-diabetic control; 2, 3, and 4) non-diabetic rats treated with 15, 30, and 45 mg of Spirogyra algae/kg/d; 5) control diabetic; and 6, 7, and 8) diabetic rats treated with 15, 30, and 45 mg of Spirogyra algae extract. At the end of the trial, the serum concentrations of glucose, interleukin-6 (IL-6), tumor necrosis factor-a (TNF-a), malondialdehyde (MDA), glutathione (GSH), total antioxidant status (TAS), C-reactive protein (CRP), insulin, triglycerides, and cholesterol were examined by specified procedures. Results Our findings indicated that the administration of STZ significantly increased the serum concentrations of glucose, triglycerides, cholesterol, CRP, IL-6, TNF-a, and MDA and decreased the serum levels of GSH and TAS (P<0.05) in diabetic rats. Oral administration of Spirogyra alleviated adverse effects of diabetes on oxidative stress and inflammatory factors in diabetic rats (P<0.05). Conclusion It can be stated that Spirogyra algae extract can be used for treatment of diabetes likely due to prevention of oxidative stress and alleviation of inflammation in the rat model.

Bilateral retinal hemorrhage after endoscopic third ventriculostomy: iatrogenic Terson syndrome.

A serious ophthalmological complication of an endoscopic third ventriculostomy that created an iatrogenic Terson syndrome is described. A patient with an obstructive hydrocephalus was treated endoscopically, but due to the inadvertent use of a pressure bag during rinsing, in combination with a blocked outflow channel, a steep rise in intracranial pressure occurred. Postoperatively the patient experienced disturbed vision caused by bilateral retinal hemorrhages, and an iatrogenic Terson syndrome was diagnosed. The pathogenesis of Terson syndrome is discussed based on this illustrative case.