Correlation of pre-operative and post-operative retinal nerve fibre layer thickness with visual outcome following decompression of pituitary macroadenoma.

OBJECTIVE: To (i) correlate preoperative retinal nerve fibre layer (RNFL) thickness with visual parameters in patients with pituitary macroadenomas. (ii) study the predictive role of preoperative RNFL in visual outcome following surgery for pituitary macroadenomas (iii) correlate change in postoperative RNFL thickness (RNFLT) with visual outcome. METHODS: Preoperative and post-operative RNFL thickness of thirty-three consecutive patients operated for pituitary macro adenoma between June 2022 and May 2023 were measured using Optical Coherence Tomography (OCT) and compared with standard visual examination findings and Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) measurements. RESULTS: A total of 66 eyes of 33 patients who underwent surgical excision of pituitary macro adenoma between June 2022 and May 2023 were studied. The mean age in years of the study group was 44.36 ± 13.77 and both sexes were equally represented (Male: Female = 16:17). RNFL thinning predominantly involved the temporal (51.21+/-15.19 µm) followed by nasal quadrants (62.67+/- 17.03 µm) and correlated well with the visual field (VF) deficit (p <0.001). Patients with severe disc pallor had extremely thin RNFL (less than 67 +/- 8.68 µm). Patients with moderate to severe visual acuity (VA) deficits had significantly thinner RNFLs (65.08±7.09) compared to patients with normal to mild impairment in vision. (83.185±1.2) (p<0.05). RNFL values were significantly thinner for patients with Wilson Grade C, D and E tumours (66.13 ±12.19 µm) compared to those in Grade A and B (77.67±22.12 µm). The mean preop RNFL of patients who showed post-operative improvement in vision was 87.025± 15.02 µm, of patients in whom vision remained static was 74.58 ±18.31 µm. The mean VA (Decimal) increased from a minimum of 0.60 at the pre-operative timepoint to a maximum of 0.68 at the post-operative timepoint. (Wilcoxon Test: V = 42.5, p = <0.001). The mean RNFLT (µm) increased from 77.14 µm at the pre-operative timepoint to 83.77 µm at the post-operative timepoint. (Wilcoxon Test: V = 218.0, p = <0.001). The mean change of RNFL in patients in whom vision improved was 3.6 µm and the mean change of RNFL in patients in whom vision remained static was 9.51 µm. Absence of postoperative visual improvement was noted despite postoperative RNFL thickness improvement in eyes which showed significant preoperative thinning of the nasal (<65 µm) and temporal (<52µm) quadrants. CONCLUSION: RNFL thinning corelates directly with visual acuity, visual field, and optic disc pallor. Patients with pituitary adenoma have preferential thinning of temporal and nasal quadrants. Visual outcome is better in patients with preserved RNFLT of values more than 82 +/- 5 µm. Reversal of RNFL thinning postoperatively need not necessarily correlate with visual improvement especially in patients who showed significant preoperative thinning of nasal and temporal quadrants.

Gossypiboma larynx: a rare cause of post-tracheostomy stridor-case report and review of literature.

BACKGROUND: Gossypiboma, a retained surgical sponge with a foreign body reaction, is an unusual but serious complication seen in open abdominal surgeries. It is exceptionally rare following head and neck surgeries. Here, we present a case of Gossypiboma of the upper airway following tracheostomy. CASE PRESENTATION: A 32-year-old male presented with stridor and difficulty breathing one-month post-tracheostomy after a severe head injury following a road traffic accident. A neck radiograph was unremarkable, and a computed tomography (CT) scan of the neck showed a well-defined homogenous curvilinear membrane extending from the hypopharynx to the upper trachea. Bronchoscopic evaluation of the larynx and upper trachea revealed a retained surgical sponge, which was retrieved. The patient's breathing improved drastically post intervention. CONCLUSION: Gossypiboma may go undetected in radiographs and may also present atypically as a homogenous membrane on a CT scan of the neck. Though rare, retained surgical items can have profound medicolegal and professional consequences on physicians. Hence, a strong clinical suspicion and vigilance for gossypiboma is necessary for patients presenting with respiratory distress post-tracheostomy.

Management of Postoperative Discitis with Debridement and Novel Technique of Local Antibiotic Instillation: Functional Outcomes from a Resource-Limited Setting.

BACKGROUND: Patients in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) have substantial treatment abandonment and non-adherence with outpatient oral medications. This work sought to investigate outcomes of postoperative discitis treated with debridement and a novel technique focused on reducing outpatient antibiotic requirement in an LMIC setting. METHODS: This study, conducted and reported following STROBE guidelines, reviewed outcomes of all patients with postoperative discitis who had been debrided by 1 neurosurgeon in a resource-limited setting during 2008-2020. Patients had undergone single-level L4-L5 or L5-S1 discectomy elsewhere, later developing magnetic resonance imaging-confirmed discitis. After non-response or deterioration following intravenous antibiotics, patients underwent early debridement, followed by in-patient antibiotic instillation into disc space for 2 weeks via drain. Study outcomes were modified Kirkaldy-Willis Grade, Japan Orthopaedic Association (JOA) score, and visual analog scale (VAS) score, all assessed at 1 year. RESULTS: Twelve patients were included, 10 male and 2 female, with median age of 46 (IQR 3.5) years. Debridement was done after median 82.5 (IQR 35) days and took median time of 105 (IQR 17.5) minutes. VAS scores (mean ± SD) decreased from 9.25 ± 0.75 preoperatively to 0.67 ± 0.89 1 year postoperatively (mean difference 8.58, 95% CI 8.01-9.15, P < 0.001). JOA scores (mean ± SD) improved from 4.5 ± 2.94 to 26.42 ± 1.31 1 year postoperatively (mean difference 21.92, 95% CI 20.57-23.26, P < 0.001). Kirkaldy-Willis grade was excellent in 6 (50%) patients, good in 5 (41.7%), and fair in 1 (8.3%). Patients became ambulatory within 2 weeks, with no major complications during 4.15 (IQR 3.45) years of median follow-up. CONCLUSIONS: In LMICs, patients with medically refractory postoperative discitis potentially have good outcomes after debridement plus 2-week local antibiotic instillation.

Gearing Up for the U.S. Medical Licensing Examination Step 1 Pass/Fail Transition, Evaluating the Role of Research Productivity as an Alternative During the Neurosurgical Residency Selection Process: An Overview.

Neurosurgery residency programs are the most competitive among the surgical specialties for applicants to match into. U.S. Medical Licensing Examination (USMLE) step 1 scores are staple and pivotal in narrowing down applicants for granting interviews and ranking in the match process. The upcoming transition from a numeric to binary step 1 scoring shifts the emphasis on using the status quo Step 2 Clinical Knowledge numeric scoring as the only objective measure. It can prove insubstantial for accurate assessment of competencies, further urging residency programs to widen their selection protocols to allow multiple assessments of competency. Research experience has consistently proved to result in higher successful match rates, and a positive correlation is seen with the number of research publications and Hirsch indices. However, with a predicted emphasis on research with the shift in scoring practices, these tools provide inadequate insight into authorship, contributions, type of publications, and community impact, warranting the need to include supplementary modifications, surrogates, or alternatives to such tools for a more comprehensive and equitable assessment of research. This study summarizes the role of research in the neurosurgical match process, describes nuances in research evaluation, and introduces novel Hirsch indices and additional strategies to address these nuances for equitable evaluation of research productions.

A modern history of neurosurgery and neurology in India: lessons for the world.

The compendia of medical knowledge of the great ancient Indian physicians Susruta, Caraka, Jivaka, and Vagbhata all attest to the practice of neurosurgery and neurology starting in the 1st millennium bce. Although a period of scientific stagnation ensued between the 12th and 20th centuries ce, Indian medical neurosciences once again flourished after India's independence from British rule in 1947. The pioneers of modern Indian neurosurgery, neurology, and their ancillary fields made numerous scientific and clinical discoveries, advancements, and innovations that proved influential on a global scale. Most importantly, the efforts of Indian neurosurgeons and neurologists were unified at the national level through the Neurological Society of India, which was established in 1951 and enabled an unprecedented degree of collaboration within the aforementioned medical specialties. The growth and success of the Indian model bears several lessons that can be applied to other nations in order to garner better collaboration among neurosurgeons, neurologists, and physicians in related fields. Here, the authors elaborate on the origins, growth, and development of neurosurgery and neurology in India and discuss their current state in order to glean valuable lessons on interdisciplinary collaboration, which forms the basis of the authors' proposal for the continued growth of societies dedicated to medical neurosciences across the world.

Effectiveness and Safety Profile of Remote Pulmonary Artery Hemodynamic Monitoring in a "Real-World" Veterans Affairs Healthcare System.

Ambulatory hemodynamic monitoring has demonstrated the ability to reduce heart failure-related hospitalization, regardless of left ventricular ejection fraction; however, real-world data in a Veterans Affairs patient population are limited. The present study retrospectively reviewed 53 patients with New York Heart Association class III heart failure, regardless of left ventricular ejection fraction, implanted with a pulmonary artery pressure sensor (CardioMEMS) at our single Veterans Affairs institution. Heart failure-related hospitalizations were assessed in patients for 6 and 12 months after the implantation of the device and compared with the 6- and 12- month periods before implantation in the same patient cohort. Pulmonary arterial pressures and medication doses were also recorded at baseline, 6- months, and 12- months and procedural safety data were also assessed. Implantation of a remote pulmonary artery pressure sensor was associated with a 52% (95% confidence interval 30% to 68%, p <0.001) and a 44% (95% confidence interval 24% to 59%, p <0.001) reduction in heart failure-related hospitalization at 6 and 12 months after implant, respectively, compared with the 6- and 12-month preimplant periods. Mean pulmonary arterial pressures also demonstrated significant reductions from baseline to 6 and 12 months after implant. A total of 3 procedure-related adverse events were noted. In conclusion, pulmonary artery pressure sensor implantation is relatively safe and associated with significant reductions in heart failure-related hospitalization and decreased mean pulmonary artery pressures in patients within the Veterans Affairs system with New York Heart Association class III symptoms, regardless of ejection fraction.

Surgical Resection and Clipping of an Atherosclerotic Partially Calcified Middle Cerebral Artery Trifurcation Aneurysm with Clipping of an Anterior Communicating Artery Aneurysm: 2-Dimensional Operative Video.

It is estimated within the western population that 10%-13% of patients possess multiple intracranial aneurysms1 and are linked to certain risk factors. Thrombotic aneurysms are a rare subgroup of complex aneurysms characterized by an organized intraluminal thrombus.2,3 They differ from typical saccular aneurysms in terms of morphology, natural history, symptomatology, and difficulty in treatment with conventional strategies.2,4 The risk of rupture is poorly characterized and assumed to be comparable with that of nonthrombotic aneurysms.2 A subset of thrombotic aneurysms can be treated surgically with conventional clipping, and direct clipping has been associated with the best surgical outcome.2 Despite its safety, endovascular treatment is associated with a high risk of recurrence and retreatment compared with surgical treatment,5 with recanalization rates up to 5× higher compared with nonthrombosed aneurysms.6,7 A 64-year-old male presented with headaches and dizziness for 6 months. He was neurologically intact. Imaging revealed a calcified thrombosed right middle cerebral artery aneurysm and an anterior communicating artery aneurysm, both of which underwent clipping. The patient consented to the procedure. Preservation of blood flow in branch arteries in thrombosed aneurysms is challenging. Thrombectomy and clip reconstruction in such cases can occlude the branch vessels, compromising blood flow. Achieving adequate proximal control and meticulous dissection of the branches is necessary before reconstruction. We present a 2-dimensional video demonstrating the surgical steps of clipping and reconstruction of the giant thrombosed middle cerebral artery aneurysm. Complete occlusion was achieved, and the patient tolerated the operation well with an uneventful postoperative course.

Characteristics and Outcomes of Discharge Against Medical Advice and 30-Day Readmissions After Concussion: Analysis of the Nationwide Readmissions Database.

BACKGROUND: Little is known about the impact of discharge against medical advice (DAMA) in patients admitted with concussion. OBJECTIVE: To explore the prevalence of DAMA and its effect on 30-day readmissions and cost in concussion using a nationally representative sample. METHODS: The Nationwide Readmissions Database was queried for concussion admissions and their disposition at discharge between 2010 and 2014. Included patients were ≥18 years old who were admitted with concussion and had <1 hour loss of consciousness. We excluded in-hospital deaths or discharge dispositions other than home or against medical advice. Univariate and multivariate analyses were performed to determine characteristics associated with DAMA and 30-day readmissions. RESULTS: A total of 38 919 index admissions were identified, which resulted in 998 (2.6%) DAMA. In multivariate analysis, characteristics associated with DAMA included younger age (odds ratio [OR] = 0.84, 95% CI 0.80-0.88), male sex (1.47, 1.22-1.76), an Elixhauser comorbidity index >3 (1.67, 1.15-1.60), and assault (2.02, 1.48-2.75) and fall injuries (1.28, 1.03-1.60). The highest-income quartile was negatively associated with DAMA (0.91, 0.73-1.13). In multivariate analysis, DAMA (1.63, 1.29-2.06), higher comorbidity index (2.61, 2.22-3.06), and self-inflicted mode of injury (2.28, 1.30-4.02) were independently associated with 30-day readmission. The most common indication for readmission in both routine and DAMA groups was traumatic injury (21.1% and 24.5%, respectively). CONCLUSION: DAMA is an independent risk factor for readmission in patients admitted for concussion. The variables associated with DAMA identified in this study can be used to design patient-centered interventions that can be implemented to reduce DAMA and its impact on clinical outcomes in patients with traumatic brain injury.

Surgical Technique and Nuances of Resection of a Trochlear Schwannoma: Operative Video.

Cranial nerve schwannomas accounts for around 8% of all benign intracranial tumors, arising most commonly from the vestibular nerve, followed by the trigeminal nerve and other lower cranial nerves. However, trochlear schwannoma in a patient without neurofibromatosis-2 are extremely rare and to date, fewer than 100 cases have been reported in the literature. They are either asymptomatic or present with ophthalmologic or neurologic symptoms. Diplopia is the most common initial symptom. As the tumor grows, it can compress the surrounding brainstem and other cranial nerves, causing neurologic symptoms. Asymptomatic lesions are detected incidentally following imaging for some other reason. There are no clear guidelines for the management of these tumors. In general, small asymptomatic tumors are closely observed by serial imaging and symptomatic or larger tumors are managed by surgical excision and/or stereotactic radiosurgery.1-7 Here we present a 41-year-old female patient with incidentally detected left trochlear schwannoma during the follow-up magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scans. She was followed up regularly with multiple repeat MRI. Recently she started complaining of occasional headaches, and MRI showed a left peimesencephalic cistern tumor causing mass effect on the ipsilateral midbrain. There was also significant brainstem edema. Hence she underwent left retromastoid suboccipital craniectomy, lateral supracerbellar approach, and complete excision of the tumor. Postoperatively the patient had an uneventful recovery without any new neurologic deficits. At 6 months' follow-up the patient is doing well.

Interhemispheric Approach for Clipping of a Pericallosal Artery Aneurysm: 2-Dimensional Operative Video.

Pericallosal artery aneurysms are rare, accounting for 2%-9% of all intracranial aneurysms. They are most commonly saccular and wide necked. Although typically small, they are more prone to rupture compared with other aneurysms in the anterior circulation. They are more common in people with unpaired or azygous arteries. Rupture of pericallosal artery aneurysm results in intracerebral hematoma in approximately 50% of patients, usually in the frontal lobe, anterior interhemispheric fissure, pericallosal cistern, or cingulate gyrus. Compared with other supratentorial aneurysms, surgical clipping of pericallosal aneurysms carries a higher morbidity and mortality. A 47-year-old female presented with sudden-onset worst headache of her life followed by dizziness, syncope, transient weakness, and numbness over the left lower extremity. She was neurologically intact, and imaging revealed a right pericallosal artery aneurysm. The patient consented to the procedure. The 2-dimensional Video 1 demonstrates the interhemispheric approach for clipping of a pericallosal artery aneurysm. These aneurysms are approached in the distal-to-proximal direction along with the distal anterior cerebral artery. Meticulous dissection avoids rupture without proximal control. We highlight the key surgical steps and microsurgical techniques in approaching these aneurysms. The patient tolerated the operation well with an uneventful postoperative course.

Uncharted Waters of Machine and Deep Learning for Surgical Phase Recognition in Neurosurgery.

Recent years have witnessed artificial intelligence (AI) make meteoric leaps in both medicine and surgery, bridging the gap between the capabilities of humans and machines. Digitization of operating rooms and the creation of massive quantities of data have paved the way for machine learning and computer vision applications in surgery. Surgical phase recognition (SPR) is a newly emerging technology that uses data derived from operative videos to train machine and deep learning algorithms to identify the phases of surgery. Advancement of this technology will be key in establishing context-aware surgical systems in the future. By automatically recognizing and evaluating the current surgical scenario, these intelligent systems are able to provide intraoperative decision support, improve operating room efficiency, assess surgical skills, and aid in surgical training and education. Still in its infancy, SPR has been mainly studied in laparoscopic surgeries, with a contrasting stark lack of research within neurosurgery. Given the high-tech and rapidly advancing nature of neurosurgery, we believe SPR has a tremendous untapped potential in this field. Herein, we present an overview of the SPR technology, its potential applications in neurosurgery, and the challenges that lie ahead.

Tribute to William Edward Hunt and Robert McDonald Hess Jr.: Pioneers in the Clinical Classification of Ruptured Intracranial Aneurysms.

William Edward Hunt (1921-1999) and Robert McDonald Hess Jr. (1931-2019) were pioneers in revolutionizing the early surgical management of ruptured intracranial aneurysms. Early on in his career as a professor of neurosurgery at Ohio State University, Dr. Hunt adopted a systematic method to identify clinical symptoms of patients presenting with subarachnoid hemorrhage as candidates for either immediate or delayed surgery. As an Ohio State University neurosurgery resident, Dr. Hess was an active key collaborator in Dr. Hunt's aneurysm studies. Described as a modification of the Botterell classification system, the Hunt-Hess scale grading the survival risk of undergoing immediate intracranial aneurysm surgery was implemented and validated across an 18-year consecutive patient series at White Cross Hospital, Columbus, Ohio. Dr. Hunt and Dr. Hess demonstrated that for patients with subarachnoid hemorrhage on admission with Hunt-Hess grades I and II, indicating retained consciousness and minimal neurological deficits, immediate surgical management afforded a <20% mortality rate. In comparison, patients with grade III or higher had a >50% mortality rate, suggesting that conservative management should be instead pursued. As the principal investigator, Dr. Hunt was widely regarded internationally as an expert in the field of treating intracranial aneurysms, eventually serving as a World Federation of Neurosurgical Societies (WFNS) committee member to also publish a universal subarachnoid hemorrhage grading scale. To pay tribute to Drs. Hunt and Hess for their substantial contributions, we present historical vignettes of their lives along with highlighting the role of the Hunt-Hess classification system in transforming management of ruptured aneurysms.

Outcomes of Mechanical Thrombectomy for Ischemic Stroke in Nonagenarians: A 10-Year Institutional Experience.

BACKGROUND: Nonagenarians have been underrepresented in stroke trials that established endovascular treatment as the standard for acute ischemic stroke (AIS). Evidence remains inconclusive regarding the efficacy of thrombectomy in this population. OBJECTIVES: To report our experience with thrombectomy in nonagenarians with stroke, and to identify predictors of mortality. We further investigated the effects of first-pass reperfusion and the addition of intravenous thrombolysis (IVT) on achieving better outcomes. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Data was collected for consecutively treated patients at three affiliated comprehensive stroke centers from 2010 to 2021. We included patients ≥90 years-old with AIS secondary to large vessel occlusion. Bivariate analyses were performed using the Mann-Whitney U test for continuous variables, and χ2 and Fisher's exact tests, respectively, for nominal and ordinal variables. RESULTS: Thirty-two nonagenarians underwent thrombectomy, of whom 25 (81%) had prestroke mRS ≤2. Thrombectomies were performed using stents (2, 6.7%), aspiration (8, 26.7%), or a combination of both (20, 66.7%). Successful recanalization was achieved in 97%. Procedural complications occurred in 2 (6.3%) and intracranial hemorrhage in 3 (9.4%). Sixteen patients (50%) were discharged home or to rehabilitation, 9 (28.2%) to nursing home or hospice, and 7 (21.9%) died during hospitalization. Only 2 (6%) patients had mRS ≤2 at discharge. No independent predictors of in-hospital mortality were identified, and neither first-pass reperfusion nor the addition of IVT correlated with improvement in clinical outcome. CONCLUSIONS: Although thrombectomy is safe for nonagenarian stroke and can achieve excellent recanalization, high mortality and poor functional status remain high given the advanced age and frailty of this population.

Charles Jacques Bouchard (1837-1915) and the Charcot-Bouchard aneurysm.

Charles Jacques Bouchard was a distinguished French physician and scientist of the early 19th century. Despite his humble beginnings, Bouchard was able to achieve meteoric success within the scientific and medical fields, establishing himself as one of the most influential physician-scientists of his time. This was in part due to his superb commitment, as well as the prosperity engendered by the strong influence of his teachers, which can be seen as a testament to the importance of mentorship in medicine. Besides his myriad contributions, Bouchard is most well known for describing the Charcot-Bouchard aneurysm in 1866 alongside his mentor Jean-Martin Charcot, linking them for the first time to intracranial hemorrhage. Bouchard's thesis entitled "A Study of Some Points in the Pathology of Cerebral Hemorrhage" was regarded by some as the most original and important of all recent works on the subject of cerebral hemorrhage at the time of publication. Sadly, the great relationship Bouchard shared with his mentor Charcot would later deteriorate into perhaps one of the most well-known student-mentor quarrels in the history of medicine. Herein, the authors present a historical recollection of Bouchard's life, career, and contributions to medicine, as well as the famous controversy with Jean-Martin Charcot.

Aortic arch anomalies, embryology and their relevance in neuro-interventional surgery and stroke: A review.

BACKGROUND: Congenital aortic arch anomalies are commonly encountered during neurointerventional procedures. While some anomalies are identified at an early age, many are incidentally discovered later in adulthood during endovascular evaluations or interventions. Proper understanding of the normal arch anatomy and its variants is pivotal to safely navigate normal aortic arch branches and to negotiate the catheter through anomalies during neurointerventional procedures. This is particularly relevant in the increasingly "transradial first" culture of neurointerventional surgery. Moreover, some of these anomalies have a peculiar predilection for complications including aneurysm formation, dissection, and rupture during the procedure. Therefore, an understanding of these anomalies, their underlying embryological basis and associations, and pattern of circulation will help endovascular neurosurgeons and interventional radiologists navigate with confidence and consider relevant pathologic associations that may inform risk of cerebrovascular disease. METHODS: Here, we present a brief review of the basic embryology of the common anomalies of the aortic arch along with their neurological significances and discuss, through illustrative cases, the association of aortic arch anomalies with cerebral vascular pathology. CONCLUSIONS: Understanding the aortic arch anomalies and its embryological basis is essential to safely navigate the cerebral vascular system during neurointerventional surgeries.

Terson's syndrome, the current concepts and management strategies: A review of literature.

Terson's Syndrome describes intraocular hemorrhage secondary to an acutely raised intracranial pressure (ICP). Although Terson's Syndrome is common amongst patients with subarachnoid hemorrhage (SAH), it is underdiagnosed and often overlooked. This review discusses the current understanding of the etiopathogenesis, clinical features, and management of Terson's Syndrome and highlights the visual and prognostic implications to stress the importance of timely diagnosis and management. The origin of intraocular hemorrhage in Terson's Syndrome has been debated. A recognized theory suggests that an acutely raised ICP induces effusion of cerebrospinal fluid into the optic nerve sheath which dilates the retrobulbar aspect of the sheath in the orbit. Dilatation mechanically compresses the central retinal vein and retinochoroidal veins resulting in venous hypertension and rupture of thin retinal vessels. A commonly reported clinical feature is decreased visual acuity and blurred vision. These may be accompanied by symptoms of increased ICP including loss of consciousness and headache. Diagnosis is established using evidence from the clinical presentation, ophthalmoscopy, and, when required, imaging including B-mode ultrasound, CT, MRI, and fluorescein angiography. Terson's Syndrome is managed conservatively by observation for mild cases and with vitrectomy for bilateral cases and for patients whose hemorrhage has not spontaneously resolved after an observational period. Terson's Syndrome can be used as a prognostic indicator of morbidity and mortality in underlying pathology like SAH. Fundoscopy of patients with SAH, acutely raised ICP or visual disturbance with unknown etiology can help establish a timely Terson's Syndrome diagnosis. This may avoid the risk of permanent visual impairment.

The Evolution of 3D Anatomical Models: A Brief Historical Overview.

For thousands of years, anatomical models have served as essential tools in medical instruction. While human dissections have been the regular source of information for medical students for the last few centuries, the scarcity of bodies and the religious and social taboos of previous times made the process of acquiring human cadavers a challenge. The dissection process was dependent on the availability of fresh cadavers and thus was met with a major time constraint; with poor preservation techniques, decomposition turned the process of employing bodies for instruction into a race against time. However, the advent of anatomical models has countered this issue by supplying accurate anatomical detail in a physical, three-dimensional form superior to that of the two-dimensional illustrations previously used as the primary adjunct to dissection. Artists worked with physicians and anatomists to prepare these models, creating an interdisciplinary interaction that advanced anatomical instruction at a tremendous rate. These models have taken the form of metal, wood, ivory, wax, papier-mâché, plaster, and plastic and have ultimately evolved into computerized and digital representations currently. We provide a brief historical overview of the evolution of anatomical models from a unique neuroanatomical perspective.

The contributions of William A. Hammond (1828-1900) to Civil War medicine & modern neurology.

William Alexander Hammond was an American military physician and a main driving force for the development of modern-day clinical Neurology in America. Hammond served as the 11th Surgeon General of the United States Army, acting during the Civil War. Throughout his time as Surgeon General, with influence from Florence Nightingale, Hammond enforced strict hygienic measures and called for the construction of pavilion style hospitals in order to decrease non-wound mortalities. He implemented further reformation of the American Medical Service that would improve efficiency and decrease general mortality for years to come. After his dismissal from the military service, Hammond continued to make meaningful achievements, spearheading the specialization of Neurology. He established the first private practice limited to diseases of the nervous system, published the first American Neurology textbook, coined the term "athetosis", and was the impetus for the formation of the American Neurological Association.