Hydrocarbon exposure effect on energetic metabolism and immune response in Crassostrea virginica.

Crassostrea virginica was exposed to different light crude oil levels to assess the effect on transcriptomic response and metabolic rate. The exposure time was 21 days, and levels of 100 and 200 µg/L were used, including a control. The most significant difference among treatments was the overexpression of several genes associated with energy production, reactive oxygen species (ROS) regulation, immune system response, and inflammatory response. Also, a hydrocarbon concentration-related pattern was identified in ROS regulation, with a gene expression ratio near 1.8:1 between 200 and 100 µg/L treatments. Statistical analysis showed no interaction effect for metabolic rate; however, significant differences were found for oil concentration and time factors, with a higher oxygen consumption at 200 µg/L. Our findings provide novel information about the metabolic response of C. virginica during hydrocarbons exposure. In addition, our results point out which biological processes should be investigated as targets for searching bioindicators.

Transcriptomic response of the Crassostrea virginica gonad after exposure to a water-accommodation fraction of hydrocarbons and the potential implications in reproduction.

The Crassostrea virginica oyster has biological and economic importance in the Gulf of Mexico, an area with a high extraction and production of hydrocarbons. Exposure to hydrocarbons affects the reproductive processes in bivalves. In C. virginica, the effect of hydrocarbons on the gonad of the undifferentiated organism has not been evaluated to determine the possible damage during the maturation process. To evaluate this effect, RNA-seq data was generated from C. virginica gonads exposed to a 200 µg/L of hydrocarbons at different exposure times (7, 14 and 21 days) and a control treatment (without hydrocarbons). The analysis of the gonad transcriptome showed the negative effect of hydrocarbons on maturation, with a sub-expression of 22 genes involved in different stages of this process. Additionally, genes in the immune system were down-regulated, which may indicate that exposure to hydrocarbons causes immunosuppression in bivalves. A group of oxidative stress genes was also reduced. These data contribute to a better understanding of the effect of hydrocarbons on the reproductive process in bivalves and, at the same time, allow us to identify possible biomarkers associated with hydrocarbon contamination in the gonad of C. virginica.

On the sources of PBDEs in coastal marine sediments off Baja California, Mexico.

Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) are widely distributed compounds in all types of matrices. In the northern portion of the Southern California Bight (SCB), there were reports of some of the largest PBDE concentrations in marine mammals and mussels. Because of this, we decided to analyze the status of PBDEs in the southern part of the SCB. An analysis of 91 samples of marine surface sediment was carried out. All of the 91 samples contained measurable amounts of PBDEs, which is a manifestation of the widespread distribution of these chemical substances. However, the levels detected are between one and two orders of magnitude smaller than those reported in southern California. Currents appear to control the distribution of PBDEs along the coast and the sedimentation sites with largest concentrations are favored by local bathymetry. Maximum concentrations were located in the middle and deeper platforms ranging from 0.02 to 5.90 (with a median 0.71) ng·g(-1) d.w. Deca-BDE mixture is largely predominant in the sediments followed by the penta-BDE mixture. The mass balance for the latitudinal strata shows the largest concentrations in the north where the largest population centers are present and with a very clear southward gradient. The mass balance calculation values showed about 36kg of PBDEs for the north, 22kg for the center, and 10kg for the south strata. In terms of depth, the PBDEs are mainly located on the middle and deep platforms rather than near point discharges, which is different than that reported by other authors.

A decadal trend study (1998-2008) of POPs in marine sediments at the south of the Southern California Bight.

In this study we present a temporal analysis of two groups of persistent organic pollutants. We compare dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) collected in coastal sediment samples during 1998 and 2008 at the southern end of the Southern California Bight. Other group of organochlorine compounds (OCs) compared in this decadal analysis is the polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs). For DDTs, the most abundant isomer was dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene DDE followed by DDT. Although no statistically significant differences in total concentration were noticeable, composition-wise some differences were still observable. The fraction parameter FDDTe=p,p'-DDT/(p,p'-DDT+p,p'-DDE) used as a measure of freshness of DDT use, is utilized here to show changes in composition. These changes are due to natural degradation of p,p-DDT under mostly oxic conditions. These changes indicate a slow transformation of DDT residues to DDE. In addition, during 1998, several stations (12 stations) showed concentrations above Effect Range Low (ERL) for the sum of DDTs while only six showed exceedance during 2008. The number of extreme values was also less frequently found in 2008 samples. For PCBs, we detected statistically significant changes, however, in both years the most abundant congeners were mostly heavy congeners (>PCB # 77) which may indicate old residues. PCBs concentrations were found in very low concentrations and do not appear to represent a danger to ecosystems. Possible explanations are offered as to the lack of observable temporal changes in concentration for DDTs in this important region.

On the effects of the dispersant Corexit 9500© during the degradation process of n-alkanes and PAHs in marine sediments.

In many coastal countries, oil spill contingency plans include several alternatives for removal of the spilled oil from the ocean. Frequently, these plans include dispersants. Because this process applies chemical substances that may add toxicity to oil that already contains toxic compounds, it is, at times, a controversial method to fight oil pollution. Additionally, local conditions may result in particular complications. We investigated the possible effects of the dispersant Corexit 9500© under conditions similar to those of subtropical oceans. We used fuel oil #6+ diesel as the test mixture. Under certain conditions, at least part of the dispersed oil may reach the sediment, particularly if the dispersant is applied in coastal waters. Nine experimental units were used in this experiment. Similar conditions of water temperature, salinity, air fluxes into the experimental units, and hydrocarbon concentrations in sediments were used. Two treatments and one control, each one with three replicates, were carried out. We concentrated our investigation on sediment, although measurements of water were also taken. Our results suggest that once the oil has penetrated the sediment, no significant differences exist between oil that contains dispersant and oil without dispersant. Noticeable degradation of aliphatic hydrocarbons occurred mainly in the low molecular weight aliphatic hydrocarbons and not in the others. Apparently, degradation of aromatics was easier than that of alkanes. However, some differences were noticed for the degradation of PAHs in the sediment, suggesting a faster degradation under particular conditions in aerobic environments such as under this experiment.

Persistent organic pollutants associated to water fluxes and sedimentary processes in the Colorado River delta, Baja California, México.

Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) were studied in sediment cores from two distinctive modern channels of the Colorado River (CR) delta. Their abundance and temporal changes are associated with flood-flows from the CR across the USA-Mexico border. The CR channel is directly exposed to river flood-flows while the Hardy River (HR) is a local channel derived mainly from agricultural runoff, geothermal effluents, and treated urban wastewater. Different headwater compositions and degrees of exposure to flood-flows appear to be the factors controlling the composition of persistent organic pollutants (POPs). Enrichment of OCPs (46 ng g(-1) dwt in HR and 4.37 ng g(-1) dwt in CR) occurred during or a few years after flooding. PCB-138 (4.2 ng g(-1)dwt) is enriched in HR suggesting its origin in dielectric oils from the geothermal power plant. PCB-28 (2.1 ng g(-1)dwt) in CR may be related with atmospheric input and/or re-deposition of upstream sediments. In surficial sediments (0-3 cm), only HR exceeds international sediment quality guidelines (4,4'-DDE=8.16 ng g(-1)dwt and ΣDDT=8.34 ng g(-1)dwt).

Trace metals in sediments and Zostera marina of San Ignacio and Ojo de Liebre lagoons in the central pacific coast of Baja California, Mexico.

San Ignacio and Ojo de Liebre lagoons in central Baja California, Mexico are nursery and grazing grounds for whales and turtles. Ojo de Liebre Lagoon also supports a salt mine operation. By concentrating trace metals via evaporation, this activity might harm biota. Consequently, salt mining might be incompatible with the lagoon's ecological role. Eelgrass can incorporate these elements and reroute them to other organisms. Trace metals in sediments (Cd, Co, Cu, Mn, Ni, Pb, Zn, and Fe) were measured at both lagoons. Some (Cu, Mn, Pb, and Zn) were also measured in Zostera marina patches at both lagoons. The results did not show elevated metal concentration at any lagoon, either for sediments or eelgrass. No statistically significant differences between lagoons were found. However, eelgrass at both lagoons showed larger concentration ranges than in sediments. Also, a correlation exists between sediment metal concentration and its concentration in eelgrass. Surprisingly, several sediment metal concentrations are higher than those considered as elevated for the Southern California Bight.

Tracing sewage pollution using linear alkylbenzenes (LABs) in surface sediments at the south end of the Southern California Bight.

Distribution and isomeric composition of LABs in surface marine sediments were evaluated at the southern end of the southern California Bight. LABs are used as tracers of wastewater discharges. The area studied extends from the Mexico-USA border to the Todos Santos Bay, Baja California in the south. The area was partitioned into a northern, central and a southern stratum. GC-MS was used for the analysis of LABs concentration. The average value of total LABs concentration was 17.4, 32.0 and 24.9 ng/g for the north, central and southern strata, respectively. LABs were not correlated with either sediments grain size (%<63 microm) or sediment organic carbon contents. The highest concentrations values of LABs were found in the northern and central strata near the 200 m isobath. Based on the I/E index, the estimated average percentage degradation was 21.3, 15.9, and 8.4% for the northern, central and southern strata respectively. Based on the isomeric composition of LABs, the largest degradation value was found in the northern stations. Internal isomers did not show significant enrichment, however, short-chained isomers (LAB(10), LAB(11)) showed enrichment. It was found that 67 out of the 68 stations measured had concentrations above detection limits. This suggests extensive contact of wastewater discharges with marine sediments in the area. An estimate of the amount of LABs per year based on detergent consumption per capita is provided.